Buddhism: Discovery of a new path

Buddhism was founded by Gautam Buddha. His father was Shuddhodana, the chief of the Shakya clan and his mother was Maya, a princess of the Koliya clan. He was born in the Lumbini grove in Nepal. This is mentioned in an inscribed pillar installed on the orders of Maurya emperor Ashoka. His year of birth has been a matter of dispute, generally taken as 563 BC.

Though Gautam spent his life in royal splendour, the pomp and luxury failed to attract his mind. As the story goes, Gautam was deeply affected by the sight of an old man, a sick person, a dead body and an ascetic while on one of his capital tours. The misery of the human life cast a deep shadow like a magic spell on Gautam.

In his quest to find a solution to the misery of the humankind, Gautam left his home in the most unceremonious way at the age of 29. After a night of regale at the royal palace, Buddha left his wife, Yashodhara, and infant/toddler son, Rahul, asleep as he took the first step to his greatness. This is called Mahabhinishkraman (the great departure) in the Buddhist literature.

Gautam spent next six years of his life as a wandering ascetic. He tried all available techniques of penance to find the answer he was seeking. He learnt the technique of meditation from a sage named, Alara Kalama. He also learnt from him the teachings of Upanishads, the spiritual elucidations and commentaries on the Vedas.

During initial years of his spiritual quest, Gautam practised rigid and austere form of meditation. He resorted to different kinds of self-torture hoping to find the truth he was seeking. Self-torture and fasting made him so week that he lost his body weight to resemble a human skeleton.

There is a beautiful story of his turnaround in the Buddhist literature. It says that while Gautam was punishing himself to attune his mind and body to the elusive supreme truth, he heard a woman singing. The song went like this: if you keep the strings of veena (an Indian musical instrument) loose, it would not produce music; if you tighten the strings to its extreme, they will get snapped and there will be no music; to make a veena musical, its strings must have the accurate balance.

In some texts, Gautam is said to be in conversation with a woman over his methods of penance. During this conversation, the woman told him about the musical relation of the strings with veena. The woman offered him kheer. 

Kheer is a sweet dish prepared by boiling rice in milk till it is cooked and until it gives out a specific aroma. Gautam broke his fast and began what evolved into his own techniques of meditation. But breaking his fast made his meditation companions angry and they deserted him.

Gautam now shifted to a place called Uruvela in South Bihar’s Gaya, and sat under a peepal tree near the Rijupalika river. On the 49th day of his meditation, Gautam attained what is called enlightenment or knowledge or Bodhi (derived from Bodh, the Sanskrit word for sense, perception and intelligence). 

That tree became reverential for his followers until it was cut down by a fanatic Bengal ruler named, Shashank in the seventh century. A branch of that tree had already been taken by Maurya emperor Ashoka's daughter Sanghamitra to Anuradhapuram, the capital of pre-modern Sri Lanka, where it was cultured into a tree.

Upon attaining knowledge, Gautam was called the Buddha, the one who knows the answer. The peepal tree became famous as the Bodhi Vriksha (the tree of enlightenment) and the place as Bodh Gaya – a global tourist spot now in the Gaya district of Bihar for which it is a major source of revenue more than 2500 years after Gautam was born.

Gautam as Buddha did not, however, gave his first sermon at Bodh Gaya. He travelled to Sarnath, where his deserter companions were meditating. It is amazing that Gautam Buddha found out where his former companions were – at a distance of about 250 km – in an age when information and communication technologies were what we describe as primitive. Gautam Buddha’s resolve to give his first sermon to this band of deserters also indicates that he made it a point to win over his first or original doubters.

At a place, now called the Deer Park at Sarnath near Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh, Gautam Buddha gave his first sermon to the deserters. This is called the Dharmachakra Pravartan (the setting off the change in the cycle of Dharma). Now, Gautam Buddha began taking disciples.

Ashvojit, Upali, Mogallana, Sariputra and Ananda were his first five disciples. Some of them like Ananda were older to Gautam Buddha. To educate people about the new-found ways of life or Dharma, Gautam Buddha founded the Sangha, the Buddhist monastery system or the Buddhist church. For rest of his life, Gautam Buddha preached his sermons, maximum number of sessions were held at Shravasti in eastern Uttar Pradesh.

Gautam Buddha visited various places to propagate his ideas. Many a time, he had to encounter other sect-founders and followers and engage in shastratha, the ancient Indian tradition of intellectual debate. Besides, Sarnath and Shravasti, Gautam Buddha preached at Mathura, Rajgir, Gaya and Patliputra.

Some of the powerful kings of the time, such as Bimbisara, Ajatshatru and Udayana of the Haryanka dynasty of Magadh, and Prasenajit of Koshala accepted his doctrine and became his disciples. Gautam Buddha also visited Kapilavastu, his father’s capital and accepted his father, mother and son to his the Buddhist fold.

At the age of 80, Gautam Buddha died at Kushinagar. He is said to have eaten his last supper at the home of Chunda Kammaaraputra, a goldsmith. In some texts, Chunda is mentioned as a blacksmith. Probably, he was a smith who dealt in different metals including gold and iron.

Gautam Buddha’s last supper is one of the controversies among the historians. Some claim that Gautam Buddha ate pork for his last meal. Some others describe the words, “shookaramaddava” as some kind of pig or boar milk product served in his supper.

Whatever Gautam Buddha ate at Chunda’s home at Pava in Kushinagar (then in the republic kingdom of the Mallas) that led to food poisoning. Gautam Buddha developed acute dysentery which proved fatal. Despite his worsening health, Gautam Buddha insisted that he travelled to Kushinagara town. 

By the time, he reached the outskirts of the town, Gautam Buddha had become too weak. He asked his favourite disciple, Ananda, to spread out the clothes under a tree for him to take rest. A make-shift bed was prepared between the two Sal trees. The place was near River Kakuttha (now called Ghaghi, a small river). He died of the illness.

There is another story about his last supper. Gautam Buddha is said to have asked Chunda not to feed that meal to anybody else. He asked Chunda, as the story goes, to bury the leftover meal. Chunda heeded the advice. 

Before he breathed his last, Gautam Buddha asked Ananda to bring water from the river. He drank it. He also warned Ananda about his followers holding Chunda responsible for his death. 

Gautam asked Ananda to tell such people that he heard directly from the Buddha that he valued two meals the most – the one offered to him when he shed the austere technique of meditation and adopted the moderate one before attaining Bodhi, and the second offered by Chunda before his Nirvana.

Gautam Buddha: An Introduction

Photo taken on Aug 10, 2015 shows Buddha statues in one of the caves of the Yungang Grottoes, a 1,500-year-old Buddhist site in North China's Shanxi province. Listed as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2001, the Yungang Grottoes contain more than 51,000 statues of the Buddha. (Photo: Twitter/

@zhang_heqing

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His name was Siddhartha, also known as Gautam, and he was a contemporary of Vardhaman Mahavira. There is confusion about the exact date of his birth but historians seem to consider 563 BC as his year of birth. He was born at Kapilavastu in the Himalayan foothills of Nepal as his mother was on her way to parents’ home from her in-laws’ place in Vaishali, an emerging political seat of power in the sixth century BC North Bihar. He was born in the ruling Shakya family.

Siddhartha attained ‘knowledge’ (Bodhi, a derivate of Sanskrit word, Buddhi meaning logic-based intelligence) at Bodh Gaya in South Bihar under a peepal tree. After attaining knowledge, Siddhartha delivered his first sermon at Sarnath in Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh. His first preaching is known as Dharma-chakra-parivartan (literally meaning a change in the cycle of dharma, which is difficult to translate into English) in Buddhism, the philosophy founded by Siddhartha. He was afterwards called Buddha or Lord Buddha.

He preached for forty years and passed away at Kushinagar in Uttar Pradesh at the age of 80 in 483 BC.

He condemned the caste system as false and wrong.

He enunciated four truths that form the basis of Buddhism. These are:

1. Suffering (dukha) exists wherever there is life.
2. Desire is the cause of suffering leading to endless rebirths. The desire for things, existence, experience, immortality, sensual pleasure, worldly possession and power are the causes of suffering.
3. Freedom from suffering is possible. It can be achieved by abandoning desire, dumping one’s individuality and giving up the lust for worldly possessions.
4. There is a way to get rid of this cycle of suffering and rebirths. This is called the eight-fold way. It is alternatively called the middle path in Buddhism. It advocates negation of extremes, for example, the attachment to passion and worldly pleasure on one hand, and the practice of self-mortification and asceticism on the other.

The guiding principles for this liberation are enunciated in what is called the eight-fold path, the Ashtanga Marg. It leads to wisdom, calmness, knowledge, enlightenment and liberation. The eight principles are:

1. Right View
2. Right Aspiration
3. Right Speech
4. Right Conduct
5. Right Livelihood
6. Right Effort
7. Right Mindfulness
8. Right Meditation

These eight principles are grouped under three categories:

1. Prajna Skandh: Right View, Right Aspiration 
2. Sheel Skandh: Right Speech, Right Conduct, Right Livelihood
3. Samadhi Skandh: Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, Right Meditation

A devoted follower of the eight-fold path attains salvation or nirvana. The attainment of nirvana is the chief objective of Buddhism.

Buddhism (and also Jainism) is non-theistic in nature. The existence of God is irrelevant to the Buddhist doctrine. Buddhism believes that God is not the creator of the universe because if he is the creator, he would have to be responsible for the miseries of the world.

Buddha laid emphasis on self-effort or self-sufficiency. That is, “one who looks onto oneself”. In Buddhism, nothing is left for divine intervention.

Buddha also believed that a soul does not exist (after death), and that there is no transmigration of the soul. That soul dies with the death of the person. What is called soul is, in reality, a physical or mental aggregate of five impermanent conditions. These are:

1. Form (the body)
2. Feelings
3. Idea or understanding
4. Will
5. Pure consciousness

The human personality or soul is said to be bound within a process which Buddha called the Wheel of Existence or the Existence Wheel. We keep the wheel revolving through ignorance and indulge in actions that create karma. This karma leads to rebirth and successive existences, all beings inseparably bound with misery.

The question that arises is if the soul dies with he man, how does karma of a man lead to rebirth?

Milinda Panha has explained this aspect of Buddhist philosophy in terms of a wave which rises in water, gives birth to another and then disappears itself. Karma through consciousness becomes the cause for rebirth.

Like Mahavira, Buddha too laid down several sheelas (rules of conduct) for his followers. In general, sheelas prohibit destruction of life and causing of pain or injury to any living being. Ahimsa is fundamental to Buddhism.

Stealing, falsehood, use of intoxicants, coveting the property of others, telling lies and indulging in corrupt practices are prohibited.

Some sheelas prohibit magic, prophesy, astrology, religious rituals or worship in any form.

In society, Buddhism took the form of the Sangha, a Buddhist order of monks and laymen.

Sometimes after his death, a credo was formalised for the Buddhis discipline: Keep my faith in Buddha, Dharma and the Sangha. This Buddhist credo is referred to as the Tri-ratna, three jewels.

Buddha started viharas (monasteries), which were places where monks lived and spent their lives praying and preaching Buddhism. The viharas were also used as schools open to people of all strata of society. Some of the more famous were at Nalanda, Vikramshila (in Bihar) and Vallabhi (in Gujarat).

After Buddha, Ashvaghosh and Nagarjuna were great teachers of Buddhism and played significant role in the spread of Buddhism.

After the death of Buddha, four general councils of the Buddhist church (Sangha) were held.

1. First great Sangha was held at Rajagriha in 483 BC, soon after the death of Buddha. The discourses of Buddha were collected, compiled and embodied in the Pali canon. This literature is known as Tri-Pitaka after the conclusion of the third great Sangha, where the third Pitak was compiled.
• Vinaya Pitaka: This deals with the rules of the Buddhist order. It was versed by Buddha’s favourite disciple, Ananda.
• Sutta Pitaka: This is a collection of Buddha’s sermons. It was versed by Buddha’s another great disciple, Upali. The famous Jatakas (or the Jataka Kathas), dealing with the stories from previous births of Buddha, are contained in the Sutta Pitaka. They give us a graphic description of the contemporary society, and make clear references to various regions and geographic divisions.
• Abhidhamma Pitaka: It was compiled at the third great Sangha, held at Patliputra. It is a treatise on metaphysics. It tells us about the preachers, princes, rich, poor, towns and villages of the period. It was versed by Mogaliput Tissa.
2. Second general council was held at Vaishali in 383 BC, a hundred years after the death of Buddha. It was at this convention that sharp divisions within the Buddhist order crept up – the Theravadi (Mayakachchayan) verus Mahasanghika (Mahakassapa) debate began at this Sangha. Interestingly, the bhikshukas (monks) of Vaishali boycotted this assembly, held in their own city.
3. Third general council was held at Patliputra in 250 BC, during the reign of Maurya emperor Ashoka. It was at this session, it was decided to send missionaries to various parts of the Indian subcontinent and beyond, and to make Buddhism an actively proselytising religion.
4. Fourth general council was held in Kashmir in the first century AD. Here, the schism in Buddhism was recognised officially. One branch was called Hinayana or the followers of the lesser vehicle, and the other, Mahayana or the followers of the greater vehicle.

Eventually, Hinayana Buddhism found its stronghold din Ceylon (Sri Lanaka), Burma (Myanmar) and the countries of South-East Asia. Mahayana Buddhism became the dominant sect in India, Central Asia, Tibet, China and Japan.

In Mahayana Buddhism, the belief in deification of Buddha, and image or idol worship (first century AD onwards) with its usual accompaniments, elaborate rituals, religious formulae, charms etc replaced the simpler tenets to place a follower’s faith in Buddha.

It also believed in Bodhisattava, the previous incarnations of Buddha, as essential part of the sect to attain salvation. It adopted Sanskrit as the language for its religious literature, and a new canon developed in as a result.

Hinayana Buddhism, however, continued to practice self-culture and believe that good deeds led to salvation.

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The Age of Three Empires: Palas, Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas

 

Kailash Temple, Aurangabad, Maharashtra: Carved from one piece of rock, estimated to have weighed over 4 lakh tonnes, during the reign of Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (Photo: Twitter/@ancient_bharat)

Kailash Temple, Aurangabad, Maharashtra: Carved from one piece of rock, estimated to have weighed over 4,00,000 tonnes during the reign of Rashtrakuta king Krishna I. (Photo: Twitter/@ancient_bharat)

Three powerful kingdoms arose in India between 750 and 1000. These were the Pala kingdom, the Pratihara kingdom and the Rashtrakuta kingdom. Each of these kingdoms, although they fought among themselves, provided stable conditions of life over large areas and gave patronage to arts and letters. Of the three, the Rashtrakuta empire/kingdom lasted the longest. It was not only the most powerful empire of the time but also acted as a bridge between the North and the South India in economic as well as cultural matters.

STRUGGLE FOR DOMINATION

Since the days of Harsha, Kannauj was considered the symbol of sovereignty of North India. Control over Kannauj also implied control of the upper Gangetic valley and its rich resources in trade and agriculture. The Palas and the Pratiharas clashed with each other for the control of area extending from Benaras to Jharkhand which again had rich natural resources, and well-developed traditions. The Pratiharas clashed with the Rashtrakutas too.

THE PALAS

The Pala empire/kingdom was founded by Gopala, in or around 750, when he was elected by the notable men of the area to end anarchy prevailing there. He was succeeded by Dharmapala. In spite of having been defeated by Dhruva Rashtrakuta, Dharmapala occupied Kannauj and held a grand durbar there. It was attended by vassal rulers from Punjab, eastern Rajasthan etc. However, Dharmapala could not consolidate his control over Kannauj. Nagabhatta II Pratihara defeated him near Mongyr (now, Munger).

Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh remained a bone of contention between the Palas and the Pratiharas. Bihar and Bengal remained, however, under the control of the Palas for most of the period of their rule.

Failure in the north compelled the Pala rulers to turn their energies in other directions. Devapala (810-850), the successor of Dharmapla, extended his control over Pragjyotishpur (Assam) and parts of Odisha. A part of Nepal probably also came under the Pala suzerainty.

Thus, for about a hundred years, the Palas dominated eastern India. Their power is attested by Arab merchant Sulaiman. He calls the Pala kingdom Ruhma and testifies that the ruler maintained a large army.

The Tibetan chronicles also provide some information about the Palas. The Pala rulers were great patrons of Buddhist learnings and religion. Dharmapala revived the famous university of Nalanda. He set apart 200 revenue villages for meeting the expenses of the university. Dharmapala also founded the Vikramshila university, which stood second only to the Nalanda university in fame. 

The Palas built many viharas in which a large number of Buddhist monks lived. The Pala rulers had a very close cultural relation with Tibet. The noted Buddhist scholars, Shantarakshita and Dipankara (also called Atisa) were invited to Tibet. They introduced a new form of Buddhism there. As a result, many Tibetan Buddhists flocked to the universities of Nalanda and Vikramshila for education.

The Palas had close trade contacts with South East Asia. Trade with South East Asia was very profitable adding immensely to prosperity of the Pala rulers and empire. The powerful Shailendra dynasty of South East Asia sent an embassy to the Pala court and sought permission to build a monastery at Nalanda and also requested the Pala ruler Devapala to endow five villages for its upkeep. The request was granted. It bears the testimony to a close relationship between the two empires/countries in the early medieval times.

THE PRATIHARAS

The Pratiharas are also called the Gurjar-Pratiharas. They are said to have originated from Gujarat or South West Rajasthan. They were at first possibly local officials but later able to carve out a series of principalities in central and eastern Rajasthan. They gained prominence on account of their resistance to Arab incursions from Sindh into Rajasthan. The efforts of the early Pratiharas to extend their control over the upper Gangetic valley and Malwa region were foiled by the Rashtrakuta rulers Dhruva and Gopal III.

The real founder of the Pratihara empire was Bhoja, who was also the greatest ruler from the dynasty. Re rebuilt the empire and recovered Kannauj around 836. Kannauj remained the capital of the empire for almost a century. The name of Bhoja is famous in many legends. Bhoja was a devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title of Adivaraha, which has been found inscribed in some of his coins.

Mihir Bhoja was succeeded by Mahendrapala I, probably in 885. Mahendrapala I maintained the empire of Bhoja till 908-09 and extended it over Magadha and North Bengal. Mahendrapala I fought a battle with the king of Kashmir but had to yield to him some of his territories in Punjab won by Bhoja.

The Pratiharas, thus, dominated North India for over a hundred years — middle of the 9th century to the middle of the 10th century. The Arab travellers tell us that the Pratiharas had the best cavalry in India, having horses imported from Central Asia. Al Masudi, who visited Gujarat in 915-16, testifies about the great power and prestige, and vastness of the Pratihara emepire. He calls the Gurjara-Pratihara kingdom Al Juzr, and identifies Baura (possibly out of confusion for Bhoja, who had died by that time) as its king.

The Pratiharas were patrons of learning and literature. The great Sanskrit poet and dramatist Rajashekhar lived at the court of Mahipala, a grandson of Bhoja. The Pratiharas also embellished Kannauj with many fine buildings and temples.

Between 915 and 918, Indra III Rashtrakuta attacked Kannauj and devastated the city. This weakened the Pratihara empire, and possibly also resulted in Gujarat being passed to the hands of the Rashtrakutas. Al Masudi tells us that the Pratihara empire had no access to the sea. The loss of Gujarat was a major blow to the Pratiharas.

Again in 963, Krishna II Rashtrakuta invaded North India and defeated the Pratihara army. This was followed by rapid dissolution of the Pratihara empire.

THE RASHTRAKUTAS

The dynasty of the Rashtrakutas produced a long line of warriors and able administration. The kingdom was founded by Dantidurg, who set up his capital at Manyakhet. The Rashtrakutas kept fighting with the Pratiharas, the Palas, the Chalukyas of Vengi, the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Pandyas of Madurai.

Probably, the greatest rulers of the Rashtrakutas were Govind-III and Amoghvarsha. Govind-III defeated the Kerala, the Pandyas, the Chola, the Pallava and the western Ganga kings.

The king of Lanka and his minister were brought to Halapur. Two statues of the lord of Sri Lana were carried to Manyakhet and installed like pillars of victory in front of a Shiva temple.

Amoghvarsha preferred the pursuit of religion and literature to war. He was himself an author and credited with writing the first Kannada book on poetics. He was a great builder. He is said to have built the capital city of Manyakhet to surpass the glory of the city of Lord Indra. However, there were many rebellions in the far flung parts of the kingdom during Amoghvarsha’s reign. These could barely be contained, and began afresh after his death.

Indira-III re-established the empire. Indra-III was the most powerful king of his times. Al-Masudi has mentioned about a Rashtrakuta king with name, Balhara or Vallabharaja as the greatest king of India.

Krishna-III was the last in the line of brilliant rulers from Rashtrakuta lineage. He pressed down to Rameshwaram where he set up a pillar of victory. But after his death, al his opponents united against his successor. In 972, the Rashtrakuta capital Malkhed was sacked and burnt. This marked the end of the Rashtrakuta rule.

The Rashtrakuta rulers were tolerant in their religious views and patronised not only Shaivism and Vaishnavism but also Jainism. The famous rock-cut temple of Shiva at Ellora was built by Krishna-I in the ninth century.

The Rashtrakutas allowed Muslim traders to settle, and permitted Islam to be preached in their dominions. Muslims had their own headmen and held their daily prayers in large mosques in many of the coastal towns in the Rashtrakuta empire. This tolerant policy helped to promote foreign trade which enriched the Rashtrakutas.

The Rashtrakuta kings were great patrons of art and letter. Their court poets wrote in Sanskrit, Prakrit and Apabhramsa. The great Apabhramsa poet, Swayambhu probably lived in the Rashtrakuta court.

POLITICAL IDEAS AND ORGANISATION

The system of administration in the three empires was based on the idea and practices of the Gupta empire, Harsha’s kingdom and the Chalukyan kingdom.

Monarch was the head of all affairs. He was the head of the administration and the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The infantry and cavalry stationed in his courtyard. Captured war-elephants were paraded in front of him. He was attended by royal chamberlains, who regulated the visits of the vassal chiefs, feudatories, ambassadors and other high officials. The king also dispensed justice. Dancing girls and skilled musicians also attended the court. Ladies of the king’s household also attended the court on festive occasions.

The king’s position was hereditary. Thinkers of the time emphasised absolute loyalty and obedience to the kings because of the insecurities of the time. However, a contemporary writer, Medhatithi thought that it was the right of an individual to bear arms in order to defend oneself against thieves and assassins. He also said that it was right to oppose an unjust king.

The rules of succession were not rigidly fixed. Thus, Dhruva and Govinda-IV deposed their elder brothers. Sometimes, rulers designated the eldest son or another favourite son as Yuvraj. In that case, Yuvraj stayed at the capital and helped the king in the task of administration. Younger sons were sometimes appointed as the provincial governors. Princesses were rarely appointed to government posts but there is an instance where a Rashtrakuta princess named Chandrobalabbe, a daughter of Amoghvarsha, administered the Raichur doab region for some time.

Kings were generally advised by a number of ministers, who were chosen by the king usually from leading families. Their position was often hereditary. During the Pala dynasty’s reign, a Brahmana family supplied four successive chief ministers to Dharamapala and successors.

From epigraphic and literary records, it appears that in almost every kingdom, there was a minister, treasurer, chief (senapati) of the armed forces, chief justice and purohita.

More than one post was combined in one person. All ministers except Purohita were expected to lead military campaigns where called upon to do so. There were also officials of the royal household, Antahpur.

Arab travellers tell us that the three kingdoms maintained highly efficient military wings. Elephants were supposed to be the elements of strength and were greatly prized. The largest number of elephants was maintained by the Pala kings.

A large number of horses were imported by Rashtrakuta and Pratihara kings by sea from Arabia and West Asia, and by land from Central Asia. The Pratihara kings are believed to have had the finest cavalry in the country. There are no references to war chariots which had fallen out of use.

Some of the kings, especially the Rashtrakutas had a large number of forts. The infantry consisted of regular and irregular troops and units provided by vassal chiefs as levies.

The regular troops were often hereditary and sometimes drawn from all over India. Thus, the Pala infantry consisted of soldiers from Malwa, Khasa (Assam), Lata (South Gujarat) and Karnataka. The Pala kings and perhaps the Rashtrakutas had their own navies.

The empires consisted of areas administered directly and regions ruled by vassal chiefs. The latter were autonomous as far as their internal affairs were concerned and had a general obligation of loyalty, paying a fixed tribute and supplying a quota of troops to the overlord. The vassal chiefs were required to attend the court of the overlord on special occasions and sometimes, they were required to marry one of their daughters to the overlord to one of his sons.

But the vassal chiefs always aspired to become independent, and wars were frequently fought between them and the overlord. Thus, the Rashtrakuta had to fight constantly against the vassal chiefs of Vengi (Andhra) and Karnataka. The Pratihars had to fight against the Paramaras of Malwa and the Chandellas of Bundelkhand.

The directly administered areas in the Pala and the Pratihara empires were divided into Bhuktis, and Mandalas or Vishayas. The governor of a province was called Uparika, and the head of a district Vishayapati.

The Uparika was expected to collect land revenue and maintain law-and-order with the help of the army. The Vishayapati was also expected to do the same within his jurisdiction.

During this period, there was an increase of smaller chieftains called Samantas or Bhogapatis who dominated over a number of villages. The Vishyapatis and these smaller chiefs tended to merge with each other and later on, the word Samanta began to be used indiscriminately for both of them.

In the Rashtrakuta kingdom, the directly administered areas were divided into Rashtra (provinces), Vishayas and Bhuktis. The head of a Rashtra was called the rashtrapati, and he performed the same functions as the Uparika. The head of a Vishaya here was called Pattala.

Below these territorial units was a village, which was the basic unit of administration. The village administration was carried on by the village headman and the village accountant whose posts were generally hereditary. They were paid by grants of rent-free lands.

The headman was often helped in his duties by the village elder called Grama-Mahajana or Grama-Mahamattara. In the Rashtrakuta kingdom particularly in Karnataka, there were village committees to manage local schools, tanks/ponds, temples and roads. They could also receive money or property in trust and manage them.

These committees worked in close cooperation with the village headmen and received a percentage of the revenue collection. Simple disputes were also decided by these committees.

Towns also had similar committees to which the heads of the guilds wee also associated. Law-and-order in the towns and in their immediate locality was the responsibility f the Koshta-pala in the towns.

(Source: History books and notes from CSE preparation days)

Literature of Vedic people: Prakrit and Sanskrit

 

Rigveda manuscript on birch bark in Sharada script (a writing system of the Brahmic family of scripts), was found in Kashmir. (Photo: Twitter/@AnupamSharmaIFS)

Historians generally believe that Vedic Sanskrit came to India with the entry of the Aryans. Some of new researchers, however, assert on having a relook on this belief. They reject the Aryan migration theory. If there is no Aryan incoming to India then there would no introduction of Vedic Sanskrit to India. Simply put, both Aryans and Sanskrit are indigenous to India, according to these scholars.

First Literary Material

Vedic literature comes as the first literary material on the Indian continent. Indus Valley writings have not been deciphered. Indus people’s language remains unknown. The language of Vedic literature is Sanskrit, called Vedic Sanskrit to differentiate it from more popular Classical Sanskrit. All Vedic Age literature is in Vedic Sanskrit with an evolution streak from complex to simpler language.

The language of Vedic literature shows that Vedic Sanskrit was already in a well-developed state. Sanskrit literally means well-cultured, finely cultivated and well-nuanced. However, it was not the language of the masses. Historians believe Sanskrit probably was the lingua franca of the elite, rich or educated class. Bigger population was possibly uninitiated in Sanskrit language and literature.

A spoken simplified version of Sanskrit was possibly the language was the medium of communication in homes and society. Historians and linguists commonly hold that three new languages evolved from Vedic Sanskrit. They are secular Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali.

Rethinking Prakrit

However, there could be another point of view. Let’s briefly consider Prakrit, meaning the natural language in contrast to refined Sanskrit. In their names, Prakrit and Sanskrit reflect a linguistic dichotomy – natural versus artificial or cultivated.

The names suggest that Sanskrit might have followed from Prakrit since it was the language that meant refined, revised, cultured or cultivated. Natural or organically developed form comes first and revision or refinement can only take place thereafter. As such, Sanskrit logically should have arrived later. If that was the case, the dominant narrative of Indian languages evolving from Sanskrit gets reversed.

This also signals that Prakrit or the natural language could have evolved in two streams. One led to refinement bound by strict rules of grammar. The other flowed freely in spoken and popular languages. Sanskrit always accommodated popular words into the refined language.

In other words, popular usages were sanskritised to conform to the rules of the grammar. That could be the reason why when social reformation movements took place, all of them focused on popular languages and not Sanskrit whereas puritan movements brought Sanskrit to central scheme. This created another social dichotomy of Sanskrit elite and vernacular commoner.

Of the three Vedic age languages, secular Sanskrit was primarily sourced from Vedic Sanskrit and did not have the elements of common writing-spoken language. In comparison, Pali had common or public elements in plenty compared to Vedic elements. Same is also true about Prakrit. 

Both Prakrit and Pali were spoken in different areas and both were essentially Aryan languages but the public elements dominated these languages as against Vedic character of the Vedic Sanskrit. All three – secular Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali – developed around sixth century BC, historians believe.

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Literature

Some of these people are from this period and some others emerge in later periods. All these six Vedangas have their own relevance, and all are necessary but from the socio-religious view Kalpa is the most important part. Kalp is  linked to Karmakand (religious rituals) and Dharma (religious beliefs). Religious rituals or Karmakand could not be performed without hand (hasta), that is why Kalpa was also called hasta or hand.

What a person following Vedic-Brahmin faith should be doing during one’s lifetime and in which manner those religious rituals should be performed are contained in the Kalpa literature. It prescribes that every person has some duties towards oneself (includes spiritualism), some towards the family and to society as well. The Kalpa literature helps that person in undertaking these duties adequately. It is contained in the Kalpa Sutra.

All the personal, familial and social prescriptions are mentioned in the form of Sutras or formulae in the Kalpa literature. This is why it is also known as the Sutra literature.

Shraut Sutra: Duty towards onself

Gruh Sutra: Duty towards family

Dharma Sutra: Duty towards society

Dharma Sutra is extremely important in Vedic literature. Owing to changes, modifications and evolution of Vedic belief system, Dharma Sutra is often linked to the origin of Smruti-Brahmin faith.

Due to dominance of Sutra literature, the phase is also known as Vedang-Sutra Age.

How India’s history has been written: Approaches to ancient Indian history

 

History-writing is most of the times like having an eagle's eye view. The writer is always looking to catch her or his prey. (Photo: Prabhash K Dutta)

History is what happened in the past. But it is not fully recorded. It is often reconstructed like an investigator recreates a scene of crime. And, it is often open to interpretation. The most dominant interpretation comes as a textbook of history. It is held as the accepted true version of the past. It may or not exclude certain facts of the past. This is why scholars agree to have different schools of thought interpreting history during its reconstruction. The distant the subject in the past more difficult it is to get it accurate. There have been certain accepted views that reconstructed ancient Indian history. Here’s a look at those approaches to reconstruction of ancient India.

COLONIAL VIEW

Modern research on ancient Indian history began in the second half of the eighteenth century because of the needs of the colonial administration set up by the British, who ruled over India. When Bengal and Bihar came under the rule of the East India Company in 1765, they found it difficult to administer, particularly the Hindu law of inheritance.. Hence, in 1776, the law book of Manu, Manusmriti was translated into English as A Code of Gentoo Laws.

Pundits were associated with the British judges to administer the Hindu civil laws and the manuals to govern the civil laws, and Maulavis to govern the civil laws of the Muslims.

[This was possibly the first instance in India when a uniform civil code was shredded to pieces. Earlier, the king would roll out a uniform code of law although that code, as Manusmriti shows, were prescribed harsher punishment to people belonging to the lower rungs of the highly stratified society and milder for upper class. 

However, Mahabharata presented another account where the upper class offenders were given harsher punishment and lower rung holders lesser on the basis that people with more social power had greater responsibility to behave as a civilian. 

During the phases of Islamic rule in India, the sultans and badshahs imposed Islamic civil as interpreted by Maulavis. The Islamic law-prescribed punishments were given to both Hindus and Muslims. Hindus paid additional taxes, according to Islamic laws, under the Sultanate and Mughal rules. 

The East India Company officials sensed the fragile sentiments of Hindus and Muslims for their religious beliefs and tried not to attract unwarranted hostility and cause unity among the two powerful social groups.]

Initial efforts by the East India Company officials to understand the ancient laws and customs culminated in the establishment of the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784 in Kolkata, then called Calcutta, by Sir William Jones.

Jones translated great Sanskrit dramatist Kalidasa’s Abhijnanshakuntalama into English in 1789. Thje Bhagavadgita had already been rendered into English in 1785. The Bombay Asiatic Society was set up in 1804, and the Asiatic Society of Great Britain was set up in 1823 in London.

William Jones emphasised the point that originally European languages were very much similar to Sanskrit and Iranian languages. This finally resulted in the establishment of chairs in England and other European countries.

The greatest push to Indological studies was given by F Max Mueller, who spent most of his time in England. The Revolt of 1857 was an eye-opener to the British. It was strongly realised in Britain that it badly needed to understand the manners and social systems of an alien people over whom it had to rule. Similarly, the Christian missionaries wanted to find out the vulnerable points in the Hindu religion to win converts and strengthen the British empire.

To meet these needs, the ancient scriptures were translated on a massive scale under the editorship of Max Mueller. Altogether, fifty volumes were published under the title of “The Sacred Books of the East” series. Although a few Chinese and Iranian texts were included, the ancient Indian texts dominated the series.

In the introduction to these volumes, Max Mueller and other western scholars made some generalisations about the nature of ancient Indian history and society. They said that the ancient Indians lacked the sense of history especially of time factor in historiography and chronology. They said that the Indians were accustomed to despotic rule. 

Further, the natives were engrossed in the problems of spiritualism or of the next world, and least bothered about the problems of this world. The caste system was considered as the most vicious form of social discrimination. They stressed that the Indians had experienced neither a feeling of nationhood nor any kind of self-government.

Many of these generalisations appeared in “Early History of India” by WA Smith, who prepared the first systematic history of ancient India in 1904. It served as a textbook for nearly fifty years and is still used by scholars.

Smith’s approach to history was pro-colonialist. He emphasised the role of foreigners in India. Macedonian warrior emperor Alexander’s invasion accounted for almost-one-third of his book. India was presented as the land of despotism which did not experience political unity until the establishment of the British rule.

In sum, British interpretation of Indian served to denigrate Indian character and achievements and justify the colonial rule. A few of these observations appeared to be somewhat valid. Thus, compared to the Chinese, the Indians did not show any strong sense of chronology although in the earlier stage, important events were dated with reference to the death of Gautam Buddha.

However, generalisations made by historians were either false or grossly exaggerated. They could serve as good propaganda material for the penetration of the despotic British rule. Their emphasis on the Indian tradition of one-man rule could justify the system which vested all powers in the hands of the viceroy.

Similarly, if the Indians wee obsessed with the problems of the other world, the British colonial masters had no option but to look after their lives in this world. Truly, at the heart of such generalisations lay the need to demonstrate that the Indian were incapable of governing themselves.

NAITONALIST APPROACH

The colonialist view came as a great challenge to the western-educated Indian scholars. They were irked by the colonialist distortions of their past and at the same time distressed by the contrast between the decaying feudal society of India and the progressive capitalist society of England. They took upon themselves not only the mission to reform Indian society but also to reconstruct ancient Indian history in such a manner as to make a case for social reforms and more importantly for self-government.

In doing so, most historians were guided by the nationalist ideas of Hindu revivalism but there was no dearth of scholars who adopted a rationalist and objective approach of historiography. To the second category belonged Rajendra Lal Mitra. He wrote a book entitled Indo-Aryans.

Rajendra Lal Mitra took a rational view of ancient society and produced a forceful tract to show that in ancient times, people consumed beef. Others tried to prove that in spite of its peculiarities, the caste system was not basically different from the class system based on division of labour found in pre-industrial and ancient societies of Europe.

In Maharashtra, RG Bhandarkar and VK Rajwade emerged as two great dedicated scholars who pieced together varied sources to reconstruct the social and political history of the country. RG Bhandarkar reconstructed the political history of the Satavahanas and the history of Vaishnavism and other sects. Through his researches, Bhandarkar advocated widow marriages and the evils of the caste system and child marriage.

VK Rajwade laboured hard in search of Sanskrit manuscripts and sources of Maratha history. He produced the history of the institution of marriage that he wrote in Marathi in 1926. It is considered a classic text because of its solid base in Vedic and other texts and also because of the author’s insight into the stages in the evolution of marriage in India.

Pandurang Vaman Kave continued the earlier tradition of scholarship. His “History of the Dharmashastra” is an encyclopaedia of ancient social laws and customs.

The Indian scholars diligently studied polity and political history to demonstrate that India did have its political history and that the Indians possessed expertise in administration. DR Bhandarkar published books on Ashoka and on ancient Indian political institutions.

HC Roychaudhury reconstructed the history of ancient India from the time of Bharat war (tenth century BC) to the end of the Gupta period. His writings are marked by impeccable scholarship but show a streak of militant Brahmanism when he criticised Ashoka’s policy of peace. A stronger element of Hindu revivalism appeared in the writings of RC Majumdar, who edited “History and Culture of the Indian People”.

Most writers on early Indian history did not give adequate attention to South India. Even KA Nilakanta Shastri followed the same approach in his “A History of Ancient India”. This was more than rectified in his “History of South India”. His style is terse but his writing is lucid. However, his general observations on the nature of polity and society in South India are questioned by several historians.

Shastri emphasised the cultural supremacy of Brahmins and also highlighted the harmony that prevailed in early Indian society. Until 1960, political history attracted the largest number of Indian scholars who also glorified the histories of their respective regions on dynastic lines. Those who wrote history books at a pan-India level were inspired by the ideas of nationalism.

Some scholars such as KP Jayasawal and AS Altekar overplayed the role of indigenous ruling dynasties in liberating the country from the rule of the Shakas and Kushanas, little realising that central Asian and some other people became part and parcel of India’s life and did not exploit its resources for their original homeland.

However, the greatest merit of KP Jayasawal lay in exploding the myth of Indian despotism. He showed that the republics existed in ancient times and Indians enjoyed a measure of self-government. His findings finally appeared in his “Hindu Polity” in 1924. Although Jayasawal is charged with projecting nationalist ideas into ancient institutions, and the nature of the republican government presented by him is attacked by many writers including VN Ghoshal, his basic thesis regarding the practice of republic experiment is widely accepted.

SHIFT TO NON-POLITICAL HISTORY

AL Basham questioned the wisdom of looking India from the modern point of political view. His book, “Wonder That Was India” is a sympathetic survey of various facets of ancient Indian culture and civilisation free from the prejudices that plague the writings of VA Smith and other British writers.

Basham’s book marks a great shift from political to non-political history. The same shift is evident in DD Koshambi’s “An Introduction to the Study of Indian History” published in 1959, later popularised in “The Civilisation of Ancient Indian in Historical Outline”.

Koshambi blazed a new trail in the Indian history. His treatment followed the materialist interpretation of history, which is derived from the writings of Karl Marx. He presented the history of ancient Indian society, economy and culture as an integral part of the development of the forces and relations of production. His was the first survey book to show the stages of social and economic development in terms of tribal and class processes.

MULTI-DISCIPLINARY APPROACH

In the last few decades, there has been a sea change in the methods and orientation of those who work on ancient India. They lay greater emphasis on social, economic and cultural processes, and try to relate them to political developments. They take account of the stratification of the texts and compare their conventional nature with archaeological and anthropological evidence. All this bodes well for the future of historical studies.

Unfortunately, a few Indian writers magnify the role of religion, and believe that everything good and great originated in their country.

Western writers no longer insist that all such things came to India from outside. But some of them hold that religious ideas, rituals, caste, kinship and tradition are the main forces in Indian history. They also underscore various divisive features which made for stagnation. They are more concerned about the problem of stability and continuity. They seem to be fascinated by old, exotic elements and want to preserve them forever.

Such an approach implies that Indian society has not changed and cannot be changed. It means that underdevelopment is an integral part of the Indian character. Thus, the chauvinists and sophisticated colonialists use the study of India’s past to prevent its progress. It is therefore essential to take a balanced and objective view of ancient India.

(Note was prepared during preparation for civil services exam. I don’t really remember the source.)

PS: If  you read and like it, please do tell me in the comment box below.

History: North India before Gautam Buddha

Remains at Kapilvastu: Brick structure dating back to 6th century BC at Ganwaria near Piprahwa, Balrampur, UP. Twenty-five rooms were found during excavation leading to identification of the lost city of Kapilvastu, the capital of King Shuddhodhan, the father of Mahatma Buddha. (Photo: Twitter/Indianhistorypics)

This period is also known as the era of Mahajanapadas. There were 16. This is also the phase of socio-religious movements that saw emergence or consolidation of Jainism, Buddhism, Bhagavat belief system and Brahmanism.

Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya provides details of the 16 Mahajanapadas, also in Pali literature. Another text Janavasabhasutta talks about 12 Mahajanapadas while Chullaniddesha has a slightly different list of Mahajanapadas. It counts 17 by adding Kalinga to the list and replacing Gandhara by Yona. Mahavastu’s list is also a little modified with Shivi and Dasharna coming in place of Gandhara and Kamboja.

The commonly held 16 Mahajanapadas were:

1.    Kashi in Varanasi

2.    Koshal in Ayodhya-Shravasti region or the Awadh region

3.    Anga in East Bihar around Champa, Bhagalpur-Munger

4.    Magadha in South Bihar around Girivraj, Rajgriha

5.    Vajji in North Bihar, around Vaishali, a congregation of tribes

6.    Malla in Pava in East UP, around Gorakhpur-Deoria, a congregation of tribes

7.    Chedi, in Bundelkhand region

8.    Vatsa in Kaushambi, near Allahabad/Prayagraj in UP

9.    Kuru in Indraprastha, in Delhi-Haryana region

10. Panchal in Kampilya, around Ruhelkhand region

11. Matsya in Viratnagar in Rajasthan

12. Shurasena in Mathura, in West UP and around Delhi

13. Asmaka or Asika, in Potana or Paithan in the source region of the Narmada

14. Avanti in Ujjaini and Mahishmati in Malwa region, Central India

15. Gandhara in Takshashila, NW Pakistan

16. Kamboja in Rajpur, west of Gandhara

Jain text Bhagavatisuttra provides the list with slightly different names for some of the Mahajanapadas. They are:

1.    Kashi

2.    Koshal

3.    Anga

4.    Vajji

5.    Magadh

6.    Banga

7.    Malaya

8.    Malaw

9.    Achchha

10. Vachchha

11. Kochchha

12. Padhya or Pundra

13. Ladha or Radh

14. Moli

15. Awadha

16. Sambhuttara

The Bhagavatisuttra mentions new Mahajanapadas not mentioned in Buddhist Anguttara Nikaya, such as Banga and Radh. The geographical location of Sambhuttara Mahajanapada is not clearly known. It is speculated that it might have been somewhere in the northwest region of ancient India. Achchha and Vachchha Mahajanapadas might have been located in Gujarat. Pundra was possibly located near Banga.

It is clear that two literary sources give two different sets of 16 Mahajanapadas. Some of the names are different. Historians have given more credibility to the list mentioned by the Anguttara Nikaya. What is significant is that the lists emphasise that big state-like units emerged in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bengal and Pakistan. All these Mahajanapadas were located north of the Vindhyas.

The thing is that Anguttara Nikaya mentions the names of Mahajanapadas that existed before Buddha. During Buddha’s period, Kashi was annexed by Koshal and Anga by Magadh, and thus ceased to exist. Asmaka was also probably annexed by Avanti during this period. The listing of Vajji indicates that the statehood of Videha had collapsed by this time.

Based on Anguttara Nikaya, the Mahajanapadas could be grouped into two: monarchy and republic.

1.    Monarchy: Anga, Magadha, Kashi, Koshal, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchal, Shurasena, Asmaka, Matsya, Avanti, Gandhara and Kamboj

2.    Republic: Vajji and Malla

KASHI

Varanasi was the capital of Kashi Mahajanapada. Varanasi was situated in the doab of the Varuna in the north and Asi in the south. Brahmadatta was its most notable and powerful king. He vanquished Koshal. Later, the equation changed and Kansa annexed Kashi to Koshal.

KOSHAL

Koshal was in the Awadh region. Shravasti was the capital of Koshal. During the Ramayana period, Ayodhya was the capital of Koshal. During Buddha’s time, Koshal split into two with Saket becoming the capital of the northern part and Shravasti of the southern part. Koshal was marked by Panchal on the west, the Gandak river in the east, Nepal in the north and River Sai in the south.

ANGA

Anga was situated in Bihar’s Bhagalpur and Munger districts. Champa was the capital of Anga. Champa has a unique contribution to the human history of personal hygiene. Shampoo owes its origin to Champa. Back then it was some kind of mixed oil that was used to clean and lubricate hair. The mixture was called Champu. The word ‘champi’ for head massage has its origin in Champa. Champu travelled to the west but it lost its presence and knowledge in India. Many centuries later, champu made its way back as shampoo.

Champa’s old name was Malini during the age of Mahabharata and Puranas. Dighanikaya tells that Mahagovinda was the architect of Champa. Its ruler Brahmadatta defeated Bhattiya of Magadha.

Champa has been mentioned as one of the six metropolises of the time in Mahaprinrvanasutra. Other metropolitan towns were Rajagriha, Shravasti, Saket, Kaushambi and Varanasi.

MAGADHA

Magadha was in South Bihar spread over Patna and Gaya. River Champa separated Magadha from Anga. Rajgriha, also known as Girivraja, was the capital of Magadh. Rajgriha was guarded by stone fortresses. It was marked by River Son in the west, Ganga in the north, Vindhyas in the south and Champa in the east.

VAJJI

Vajji was a federation of eight states. It has been considered as a republic by historians – an early form of republic. Four of the eight constituents were Vajji, Lichchhavi of Vaishali, Videha in Mithila and Jnatrika of Kundagram. The four others were Ugra, Bhoga, Ikshvaku and Kaurava.

Vaishali has been identified with Basadh in Bihar’s Muzaffarpur district, Videha in Nepal’s Janakpur district and Kundagram in North Vaishali.

MALLA

Malla was situated in Uttar Pradesh’s Deoria district. It was a federation that included the Mallas of Pava in Padrauna district and Kushinara in Kushinagar district. According to Kusa Jatak, Okkaka was the chief of Malla federation.

CHEDI/CHETI

Chedi was situated in the region now known as Bundelkhand. Sotthivati was its capital. Sottivati has been recognised as Shuktimati of Mahabharata. Shishupala was its ruler back then. Chetiya Jataka names Upachara as one of its kings.

VATSA

Vats was located in Uttar Pradesh’s Prayagraj (Allahabad) and Banda districts. Its capital was Kaushambi on the bank of River Yamuna. Vishnu Purana traces the origin of Kaushambi to Mahabharata’s Hastinapur.

Vishnu Purana says that after Hastinapur was swept away by River Ganga, its king Nichakshu (man without eyes) founded the city of Kaushambi. During Buddha’s time, its ruler was Udayan of Paurava dynasty.

Puranas identify Udayan’s father as Prantapa, who had conquered Champa. Remains of Udayan’s royal palace and a vihara (monastery) built by Shresthi Ghoshita (also known as Ghoshitaram) have been found at Kaushambi.

KURU

Kuru was located in Uttar Pradesh’s Meerut, Delhi and Thanesar. Its capital was Indraprastha. Hastinapur was within the Kuru Mahajanapada. Koravya was its ruler during Buddha’s time. Later, a republic was established here.

PANCHAL

Panchal was situated in Uttar Pradesh’s Bareilly, Badaun and Farrukhabad districts. Northern Panchal had its capital in Ahichhatra in Ramnagar in Bareilly. Southern Panchal had its capital in Kampilya in Kampil in Farrukhabad.

Famous city of Kanyakubja was situated in Panchal. In 600 BC, Kuru and Panchal constituted a republic.

MASTYA

Matsya Mahajanapada was in Rajasthan’s Jaipur, Alwar and Bharatpur. Its capital was Viratnagar, a city founded by a king named Virat.

SHURASENA

In Brajmandal, its capital was Mathura. Ancient Greeks termed this state as Saurasanoi and its Methora. According to Mahabharata and Purana, Shurasena was ruled by Yadu dynasty and Krishna was its ruler.

In Buddha’s time, Avantiputra was its ruler. He was a disciple of Buddha. His mother was an Avanti princess, daughter of Pradyot. Avantiputra facilitated propagation of Buddhism in Mathura.

AVANTI

Avanti was located in western and central Malwa region. Puranas attribute the foundation of Avanti to one of the Yadus called Haihaya. Avanti was ruled in two parts with River Vetravati dividing the northern Avanti from southern part.

North Avanti had its capital in Ujjayini and South Avanti in Mahishmati. North Avanti had iron mines and Ujjayini had blacksmiths who manufactured very high quality iron-weapons.

ASMAKA

Asmaka was situated on the bank of River Godavari in Andhra Pradesh. Its capital was Polti, also known by the names of Paithan, Pratishthan and Potan. Asmaka was the only Mahajanapada of the 16 such states to have been situated in South India. Puranas say Asmaka was founded by Ikshvaku rulers who established a monarchy here. According to Chullakalinga Jataka, its ruler Arun had conquered Kalinga.

GANDHARA

It is commonly held that Afghanistan’s Kandahar has its origin in Gandhara Mahajanapada, whose principal territories were around Peshawar and Rawalpindi in Pakistan. Takshashila was its capital. According to Ramayana, Takshashila was founded by Taksha, the son of Bharat.

Its second capital was Pushkaravati. Around 600 BC, Pukkusati or Pushkarsarin was its ruler. He established diplomatic ties with Bimbisar. He defeated Prodyot of Avanti.

KAMBOJ

Its principal region was South-West Kashmir including the territories of Poonch and Kapisha that corresponds to what is known as Kafiristan extending from Hindukush to Kabul. Its capital was Rajpur or Hataka. Later, a federal state was established here. Kautilya has described agriculture, animal husbandry, commerce and weapon-making as economic activities of Kambojians. Kamboj was noted for breeding high-quality horses.

EMERGENCE OF FOUR POWERFUL MONARCHIES

The 16 Mahajanapadas in the course of time gave rise to four powerful monarchical states. All the Mahajanapadas assimilated into one or the other monarchies. Mutual rivalry was the force behind the annihilation of these Mahajanapadas – a natural evolution of political power and ambition. The four resultant monarchies were:

1.    Koshal

2.    Vatsa

3.    Avanti

4.    Magadh

KOSHAL

Koshal continued to have its capital in Shravastri, identified with Setamohata village near Gonda in Uttar Pradesh. Before the advent of Buddha, Kansa was the king of Koshal and had annexed Kashi to expand his state. Mahakoshal, the son and successor of Kansa, expanded Koshal’s territories and economic might. Gain of Kashi made Koshal a very influential state. Kashi was an important centre of trade and hosiery. Its trade contact with Takshashila, Sauvira and other distant places were strong. The growing economic power of Koshal was the main reason behind its rivalry with Magadh.

During the time of Buddha, Prasenjit was the king of Koshal. He had established friendly relationship with Magadh by marrying his sister Mahakoshala, also known as Koshaladevi to Bimbisar. He had given Kashi or at least a portion of it to Bimbisar in marriage as gift.

However, during the reign of Bimbisar’s son Ajatshatru, relationship between Magadh and Koshal embittered. Samyukta Nikaya provides details of revival of rivalry. The reason for bitterness was Kashi, which Prasenjit had taken back after the death of Bimbisar. Prasenjit made another move to make peace with Ajatshatru by marrying his daughter Wajira to him. He also returned Kashi to Magadh.

During the reign of Prasenjit, Koshal was at the pinnacle of its glory. It ruled over Shakyas of Kapilvastu, Kalam of Ksaputta, Malla of Pava and Kushinara, Koliya of Ramagama, Moriya of Pippalivana et al. Prasenjit was a follower of Buddha and preaching.

Prasenjit was succeeded by Vidudabh, who had usurped the throne with the help of Dighacharan, a minister of Prasenjit. It was said that Vidudabh was the son of a Shakya maid-servant (daasi). This became a cause of strife between the Shakyas and Vidudabh. The maid-servant was known by the name of Vasabhakhattiya and was married to Prasenjit.

Nothing is known about the successors of Vidudabh. Koshal was perhaps soon annexed by Magadh.

River Rapti was an important river in Koshal. Its name back then was Achiravati.

VATSA

Udayan was the most famous king of Vatsa. Once on hunting, Udayan was captured by Pradyot, the king of Avanti. During his captivity, Udayan fell in love with Pradyot’s daughter Vasavdatta and fled Avanti with her. Later, they married and consequently, friendship between Vats and Avanti was established.

According to Sumsumargiri (?, Bhagga republic accepted the suzerainty of Udayan and Udayan’s son Bodhikumar resided there.

According to Bhash, Udayan had married Pdmavati, the daughter of Darshaka, the king of Magadha – thus befriending Magadha as well.

Udayan turned to Buddhism and was initiated into it by famous monk Pindol. This time, Kaushambi had several Buddhist mathas, the most famous of them was Ghoshitaram’s.

AVANTI

Pradyot was its famous king. He owed his crowning to his father Ripunjaya’s minister Pulik, who was the last Amatya or a high-ranking minister of Magadha’s Brihadatta or Brihadrath dynasty. Pulik dethroned Ripunjaya and installed Pradyot as the king. Buddhist text Mahavagg calls him Chand-Pradyot signaling a strong and stubborn military policy adopted by him.

Avanti was a powerful and prosperous state due to its richness in resources that included iron mines and blacksmith skills of its workers. Pradyot was once treated by Magadh king Bimbisar’s physician Jeevak for jaundice.

Pradyot was initiated into Buddhism by Mahakachchayan, a famous monk of the time. Pradyot was succeeded by Palak, Vishakhayupa, Ajak, Nandivardhan in sequence. They were eliminated by Shishunag of Magadh.

MAGADH

The real founder of Magadh monarchy was Bimbisar. Magadh emerged as the most powerful empire of ancient India. Patliputra became its imperial capital. Bimbisar’s son Ajatshatru founded Patliputra, which was built under the supervision of his ministers Sumidha and Vassakara.

REPUBLICS IN INDIA DURING BUDDHA’S TIME

Initially, it was believed that only monarchies existed in India. Ridge Davids was the first scholar to rediscover the existence of republics in ancient India. Both Buddhist and Jain texts mention about the existence of republics in various parts of india. Panini also wrote about republics. Kautilya classifies republics into two groups:

1.    Vartashastropajivi: Those living or thriving on agriculture, animal husbandry, commerce and weapon-making as economic activities. Kamboja and Saurashtra were listed as examples.

2.    Rajashabdopjivi:  Those republics which used the tile of Raja for their chiefs. Lichchhavi, Vrijji, Malla, Madra, Kukar, Panchal etc were listed as examples.

The coins of Malwa, Yaudheya and Arjunayan talk about republics and not kings.

The republics of the past were not the same in character that we see today. They could be called aristocracy. The administration or statehood sought its authority not from the masses directly but from an elite class of electors.

SHAKYAS OF KAPILVASTU

Kapilvastu identified with Tilaurakot in Nipal was its capital. Other important towns of the republic were Chatuma, Samagama, Khomadussa, Shilavati, Nagarak, Devadaha, Sakkar etc.

Shakyas did not marry outside their own blood. Buddha was from the Shakya clan. His mother was from Devadaha. This republic was destroyed by Vidudabh, the son of Koshal king Prasenjit by his marriage with a Shakya maid-servant.

Kapilvastu was bordered in the north by the Himalayas, in the west and south by River Rapti, and in the east by River Rohini.

BHAGGA OF SUMSUMAR OR SUSHMAGIRI

Sumsumar or Sushmagiri mountain is now identified with Chunar in Mirzapur district in Uttar Pradesh. Bhaggas accepted the suzerainty of the Vatsas. Bodhikumar resided here.

BULI OF ALAKAPPA

Alakappa is identified with Shahabad-Ara-Muzaffarpur axis of Bihar. Probably, Vethadwipa (Betia) was its capital. Bulis or Buliyas were Buddhists. Accordring to Mahaparinirvanasutta, they acquired ashes of Buddha after his death and built a stupa there.

KALAM OF KESAPUTTA

Kesaputta was situated west of Koshal. Alar Kalam, one of Buddha’s early teachers who taught him yoga and meditation, was from this state. He lived near Uruvela. Kalama accepted suzerainty of Koshal.

KOLIYA OF RAMAGRAMA

Ramagrama was situated east of Shakyas. In the south, it was bordered by River Sarayu. River Rohini separated Koliyas from Shakyas. Its capital Ramagrama has been identified with modern Ramgarh in Gorakhpur district in Uttar Pradesh. Koliyas were famous for their police force.

MALLA OF KUSHINARA

Kushinara is identified with present-day Kasiya. According to Balmiki Ramayana, Mallas of Kushinara were descendents of Chandraketu, the son of Lakshamana.

MALLA OF PAVA

Pava is identified with Padrauna in eastern Uttar Pradesh. They were militant in nature. They fought against Ajatshatru of Patliputra by forming a federation with Lichchhavis of Vaishali. They were defeated by Ajatshatru.

MORIYA OF PIPPALIVANA

They were a branch of Shakyas. According to Mahavamsatika, Moriyas fled towards the Himalayas to escape the wrath of Vidudabh, the Koshal king and the son of Prasenjit by a Shakya maid-servant.

The fleeing Moriyas developed Pippalivana. Here, they organised and developed peacock rearing. Peacock, called Mayur in Sanskrit, possibly led to them being called Moriyas, and probably developed into mighty Mauryas of Magadh empire.

Pippalivana is identified with a village, Rajadhani near Kusumhi in Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh.

LICHCHHAVIS OF VAISHALI

Its capital was at Basad. Lichchhavis built the famous Kuttagarshala in Mahavana, where Buddha delivered his sermon. Lichchhavis were powerful and prosperous. In Buddha’s time, Chetak was its ruler. His daughter Chellana was married to Bimbisara. His sister Trishala was the mother of Mahavir Jain.

VIDEHA OF MITHILA

Videha spread from Nepal to Bhagalpur in Bihar with Darbhanga falling in centre. Its capital was Janakpur, in Nepal. Mithila was a famous trading centre where traders from Shravasti would come to trade with the locals.

LAW AND ADMINISTRAION IN REPUBLICS

Not much information is available about enactment of law and working of administration in these republic states.

Head or president of the executive of the republic was an elected person or official, called Raja. The position was held by men. His prime concern was to maintain peace and internal coordination.

Other top officials were Uparaja, Senapati, and Bhandagarik or treasurer. But the real power was vested in a central committee of large membership. These members were also sometimes called Rajas. It appears that Raja could have been the title or address for the chief of units of administration.

According to Ekapanna Jataka, there were 7,707 Rajas in the central committee of Lichchhavis. In Shakyas’, the number of Rajas stood at 500.

Ekapanna Jataka gives maximum information about Lichchhavis.

Whenever a dispute or crisis arose, the rajas of the central committee met and decided the course of action by voting. For example, when a dispute arose between the Shakyas and Koshal over the Rohini river water, the Shakya’s central committee voted in favour of war. But later when Koshal king Vidudabh laid a seize of Shakya capital, the central committee decided to surrender to Vidudabh’s forces to end the war accepting his lordship.

The central committee decided the appointment of Senapati in the Lichchhavi republic. In one instance, after the death of military commander called Khanda, the central committee of the Lichchhavis elected Singh to be the new military commander.

Mallas of Kushinara held a discussion in their central committee regarding Buddha’s cremation and articles belonging to him. Buddha breathed his last in the Kushinara.

The general working of these republics was probably similar to modern democratic parliaments. The working of the committee was looked after by an official called Asannapannapaka. Literature confirms that the concept of quorum was there. Secret ballot system for voting was prevalent. Official conducting voting was called Shlaka-grahaka. A vote was called Chhand.

REMARKS

It is often said that the sword that Bimbisar drew from its case was put back in the case by Ashoka in the eleventh year of his rule. By then, the Magadh empire had reached its territorial climax.

Progression of society in history: Rig Vedic age was of the age of tribes. There were tribal communities. Later Vedic age was of Janpadas formed by consolidation of tribal communities. It was followed by the age of Mahajanapadas that was characterized by bigger and massive Janapadas which were controlled by one or more tribal communities. This was the age of the beginning of state in India.

Mahajanapada was the highest unit of state. Information about this age is available in literature. But literature places these Mahajanapadas north of the Vindhyas. Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya gives the list of 16 Mahajanapadas, all north of the Vindhyas.

Buddhist text, Diggha Nikaya’s Janavasabh Sukta gives a list of 10 Mahajanapadas of the time. It mentions them in the pair of five. Besides Mahajanapadas, it also talks about Janpadas, smaller units.

Other sources say that there were other Janas and “half-civilised” tribes. Since the Mahajanapadas were in lead role, the period is called the Age of Mahajanapadas. This was also the age of advent of Magadh imperialism. The Mahajanapadas and Janapadas of the period did not have same administrative system. Same administrative systems were not there even during the Later Vedic Age. Like that, all three forms of administration continued to be in vogue – monarchy, republican and federal. Of these, republican and federal administrative systems were closer in nature.

These three forms of governance found practical expression in two forms – monarchical and republican-federal mixed. Republican-federal system were primarily found in Bihar and the terai of Nepal, and also in the northwestern region of India.

Government in Surasena and Chedi were essentially federal in nature. Vajji and Mala had republican form of government. Bihar and Nepal’s terai were important regions for republican governments. Such states were:

•         Shakya of Kapilvastu
•         Buliya of Alakappa
•         Koliya of Ramagrama
•         Malla of Pava
•         Malla of Kushinara
•         Moriya of Pippalivana
•         Lichchhavi of Vaishali
•         Nay/Nath of Vaishali
•         Kalam of Kelaputra (New Vaishali)
•         Magga of Sushmagiri

Videh of Mithila is also spoken in the same vein of republican government. All these republics were in North Bihar and the terai of Nepal. They were numerous and some of them had formed a federation. One such federation was Vajji Federation, which comprised of most republics of the region. The federation was formed for security or protection and facilitation of civic works.

They felt threatened from monarchical governments or states. There were several Janapadas that followed monarchical form of government but four were more influential. They were:

-        Magadh Mahajanapada of Girivraj or Rajgriha

-        Vatsa Mahajanapada of Kaushambi

-        Koshal Mahajanapada of Ayodhya-Shravasti

-        Avanti Mahajanapada of Ujjaini or Mahishmati

These four Mahajanapadas were special in military power. They were efficient in the use of iron. They believed in the principle of centralization of power. They followed the principle of expansion in foreign policy.

During this period, these four Mahajanapadas expanded their territories at the cost of the Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and Janas irrespective of their form of government, monarchical or republican.

Of these, the position of Magadh Mahajanapada was different from other three due to specific reasons:

• Geographic
• Economic
• Military
• Technological
• Degree of propensity of centralization of power

Magadha Mahajanapada saw continued expansion of its territories due to these factors. Its size continued to increase. The expansion process that began in sixth century BC continued till fourth century BC almost without a break. The expansion happened at the cost of others.

Propensity of expansion remained a constant with the Magadh Mahajanapada even though the ruling dynasty kept changing. Magadh was ruled by Haryanka dynasty, followed by Shishunag and Nanda ruling families. But change of dynasties did not bring a change in expansion policy.

The Maurya dynasty took the Magadh dynasty’s expansion to its climax. Due to the dominance of Magadh Mahajanapada during this period, it is also known as the age of the rise and growth of Magadh imperialism.