PALEOLITHIC AGE
Paleolithic Age roughly corresponds with the geological stratographic age, Pleistocene. It was spread over the Indian sub-continent between two lakh fifty thousand to one lakh BC. Paleolithic Age is divided into three phases on the basis of the types of stone tools and implements and techniques used to make them:
1. Lower Paleolithic Age: 2.5 to 1.0 Lakh BC
2. Middle Paleolithic Age: 1.0 lakh to 40 thousand BC
3. Upper Paleolithic Age: 40 thousand to 10 thousand BC
Following are the sources to know about the Paleolithic man:
1. Old river course
2. Water bodies: Stationary water bodies
3. Tools recovered from river basins and other places
4. Paleolithic fossils
5. Sketches/ lines drawn on the walls of the caves
Implements or tools of the Paleolithic Age are as follows:
· All the implements and tools of the Paleolithic age were made of stones only
· On the basis of the quality of stones, these implements can be divided into three types:
1. Quartzite
2. Chalcedonic
3. Sandstone
· All of them were hard stone and could not have been broken into smaller fragments for the purpose of tool making. That is why the tools of Paleolithic age were larger in shape and size.
· On the basis of their shapes, the implements and tools of Paleolithic age could be divided into following types:
1. Hand Axe: This was the oldest tool developed by the humans. It was used to cut something into smaller parts. It was broad at base and tapered towards the end. It was held in hand from the broader end.
2. Cleaver: It was double edged implement used to cut trees and make pieces of huge trunks.
3. Discoid core: It was big rounded stone used to kill an animal either in defence or for food.
4. Chopper: It was also a big stone sharpened along at least one edge. It was also used to cut objects. (Gandasa)
These were the four basic implements used by the Paleolithic men first, and all were big stone tools. It seems that all these tools were made of naturally found large stones, which were put to use by Paleolithic people. This technique of tool making is known as Conglomerate Boulder Technique. All the four above mentioned implements were made of using this technique. Later on, humans developed techniques to make specific implements by cutting or breaking large boulders according to their needs and wishes. This technique of cutting boulders to make implements is known as flaking technology, which saw use of brains in cutting and shaping implements according to humans’ needs and imagination.
· The flaking technology produced two types of implements: Flake tools, which were smaller in size as they were cut or broken from the large boulders. They were simply called flakes. Second was the core implement, which was the main part of the original large boulder. It is called core tool. Owing to this technological development humans went to make better implements and tools using these flakes.
5. (Side) Scrapper: It was the first improved implement made by using flake technique. It had a sharp edge while the other side was developed as such to make a comfortable grip to hold on. Scrapper might have been used to fleece animals or remove bark of tree trunks. Scrappers stamp the first evidence of use of improved technology by Paleolithic man. (Khurachani)
6. Burins: (It is equivalent to Randa/ Takshini of modern days’ carpenters). It was used to draw lines or sketches on the walls of the caves and to make holes in tree trunks. It was a quality implement.
Of the six implements basic four were used during Lower Paleolithic age. Flaking technique came into use during Middle Paleolithic age. Flakes were being used this time around along with core tools. During Upper Paleolithic age improved flake tools like side scrappers and burins were developed.
· Technological development: Conglomerate Boulder Technique was employed in Lower Paleolithic age. Flaking technology was used in middle Paleolithic age while during Upper Paleolithic age technology further developed and free flaking, step on flaking, block on block flaking and di-polar flaking techniques were employed to make tools.
· On the basis of the nature of the stone tools, one can have an idea about the needs of the Paleolithic man.
1. They needed protection against wild animals and gathered food from forests.
2. Initially they used implements which were defensive in nature. Later on, they developed aggressive/offensive implements.
3. There were two sources to meet food related requirements: meat from animals and fruits from forests. So, the humans developed such implements that can meet their requirements. They developed implements to cut dead animals, fleece them and mash their flesh.
4. Their implements and tools were large in size. This might have been a case of meeting necessities. Large boulders were naturally available and big animals were large in number making easy availability of food for humans, who just had to kill those animals to feed on. Further, killing a big animal could fulfill their food requirements for more days, they became their primary targets. And, to kill big animals only large implements could have been the need of the hour.
5. Later on, when number of big animals dwindled a bit and humans found it easier to kill small animals, which were much more in numbers making meeting of food requirements easy on daily basis, the later middle and upper Paleolithic man developed small implements using flake technology.
6. The fossils that have been found from the earlier ages prove that most of the animals killed or devoured by humans were big in size. This proves that humans were food gatherers and passing though a barbaric phase of their evolution. But, they were progressing rapidly.
7. All the sources of information on Paleolithic man point to one thing that the humans were totally dependent on the nature for all their needs. They were striving to adapt to the vagaries of the nature, which was very harsh as most of the earth was covered by ice during Pleistocene, which was the age of Paleolithic man. Humans were struggling for survival. Fresh water ponds were hard to find, during ice age smaller animals were not in great numbers, forests were not easily accessible due to ice coverage and also, better quality of rocks were not exposed to them for making improved tools. But, they survived using their fast evolving brain. The entire age was the age of food gatherers, who were yet to be introduced to any form of agriculture.
8. Evidence show that humans were not yet aware of the significance of fire. Though there is slight possibility that they might have seen some kind of fire. However, most of the scholar rule out this possibility saying that during ice age wild fire due to friction among the branches could not have occurred as the temperature could not have gone much above the freezing point. Whatever may be the case, it is a fact that humans ate uncooked food, both vegetarian and non-vegetarian. They ate fruits, some roots and some other produces of forests. They consumed raw meat of the animals, killed during hunting. They were essentially barbaric in nature.
9. There was settled habitation. Humans lived in caves and rock shelters. But, they lived in groups. There are enough evidence to prove this point. Scholars are unanimous in believing that humans lived in congregation out of safety concerns. They had learnt by now that only by living in groups they can fight with wild animals. This group habitation or congregation led to evolution of society.
10. No metal was being used during Paleolithic age. Pottery making has not come to the fore yet.
11. There was no specific pattern of disposal of dead bodies. This proves that the humans were yet to develop the emotional feelings for fellow beings and that there was no respect yet for those who died.
12. There has been no evidence of cloth making or use of cloth to protect their bodies against a very hostile nature. It is possible that the humans might have used the skin and hides of animal to guard themselves against icy winds. But, this can not be said conclusively for the lack of evidence.
13. Cave paintings are available. The evidence can be found on the inner walls of the caves at Bhimbetka, nearly 40 kilometres from Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh, at Machchhutavi in Andhra Pradesh, Patne in Maharashtra and Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh. It is possible that these sketches were made using burins developed in the upper Paleolithic age. In Mirzapur, a cave sketch shows an animal and a man with large boulder lifted above head behind that animal. This shows as if the man is getting ready to strike the animal with the boulder.
14. There are evidence in sketches that depict humans breaking and tearing fishes, fruits and other things. All such cave paintings belong to a period around thirty thousand BC. So, even the initial cave paintings of Bhimbetka belong to the upper Paleolithic age. This is an evidence of humans’ natural inclination towards arts.
· The evidence of Paleolithic habitation has been found all over the Indian sub-continent. The main river valleys which have thrown proof of Paleolithic habitation are as follows:
1. Sohan valley in Pakistan
2. Beas-Wainganga valley in Punjab (India)
3. Luni-Jojri valley in Rajasthan
4. Sirsa valley in Punjab and Haryana
5. Sabarmati-Mahe valley in Gujarat
6. Chambal-Betwa valley in Madhya Pradesh
7. Narmada valley in Madhya Pradesh
8. Belan valley in Uttar Pradesh
9. Godawari valley in Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh
10. Krishna-Vibha valley in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
11. Malprabha-Ghatprabha valleys in Karnataka
12. River valleys in Singhbhum region of Jharkhand
13. Damodar-Mahanadi valleys in West Bengal and Odisha
14. Kaveri valley in Tamil Nadu
· Following are the important sites of Paleolithic habitation:
1. Sohan: Adiyal, Balwaaland Chandal.
2. Punjab: Derda
3. Kashmir: Chauntara and Pahalgam
4. Rajasthan: Chittorgarh, Mysoregarh and Didwana
5. Gujarat: Medhamali and Visadi
6. Madhya Pradesh: Bhimbetka, Hathnala, Baghor and Maihar
7. Uttar Pradesh: Belan region, Mirzapur hills, Chakia Tahasil of Varanasi
8. Jharkhand: Hazaribagh
9. West Bengal: Bankura and Purulia
10. Odisha: Budha Valang, Mayurbhanj and Kyonjhar
11. Maharashtra: Naivasa, Bori, Inamgaon and Patne
12. Karnataka: Hungsi. This might have been an industrial site.
13. Andhra Pradesh: Kurnool, Nagarjunakonda, Renigunta, Machchhutavi Hill and Chintamanigaavi hill region
14. Tamil Nadu: Pallavaram, Attirampakkam, Budia Maim, Vanka and Gudiyan caves near Chennai. They exhibit a transition from lower to upper Paleolithic phases.
15. Only Kerala and the states of the northeast do not have any evidence of Paleolithic habitation in India. Assam has thrown some evidence but those are negligible.
16. Clearly, the Indian sub-continent has evidence of humans’ activities for over one lakh years.
These were the four basic implements used by the Paleolithic men first, and all were big stone tools. It seems that all these tools were made of naturally found large stones, which were put to use by Paleolithic people. This technique of tool making is known as Conglomerate Boulder Technique. All the four above mentioned implements were made of using this technique. Later on, humans developed techniques to make specific implements by cutting or breaking large boulders according to their needs and wishes. This technique of cutting boulders to make implements is known as flaking technology, which saw use of brains in cutting and shaping implements according to humans’ needs and imagination.
· The flaking technology produced two types of implements: Flake tools, which were smaller in size as they were cut or broken from the large boulders. They were simply called flakes. Second was the core implement, which was the main part of the original large boulder. It is called core tool. Owing to this technological development humans went to make better implements and tools using these flakes.
5. (Side) Scrapper: It was the first improved implement made by using flake technique. It had a sharp edge while the other side was developed as such to make a comfortable grip to hold on. Scrapper might have been used to fleece animals or remove bark of tree trunks. Scrappers stamp the first evidence of use of improved technology by Paleolithic man. (Khurachani)
6. Burins: (It is equivalent to Randa/ Takshini of modern days’ carpenters). It was used to draw lines or sketches on the walls of the caves and to make holes in tree trunks. It was a quality implement.
Of the six implements basic four were used during Lower Paleolithic age. Flaking technique came into use during Middle Paleolithic age. Flakes were being used this time around along with core tools. During Upper Paleolithic age improved flake tools like side scrappers and burins were developed.
· Technological development: Conglomerate Boulder Technique was employed in Lower Paleolithic age. Flaking technology was used in middle Paleolithic age while during Upper Paleolithic age technology further developed and free flaking, step on flaking, block on block flaking and di-polar flaking techniques were employed to make tools.
· On the basis of the nature of the stone tools, one can have an idea about the needs of the Paleolithic man.
1. They needed protection against wild animals and gathered food from forests.
2. Initially they used implements which were defensive in nature. Later on, they developed aggressive/offensive implements.
3. There were two sources to meet food related requirements: meat from animals and fruits from forests. So, the humans developed such implements that can meet their requirements. They developed implements to cut dead animals, fleece them and mash their flesh.
4. Their implements and tools were large in size. This might have been a case of meeting necessities. Large boulders were naturally available and big animals were large in number making easy availability of food for humans, who just had to kill those animals to feed on. Further, killing a big animal could fulfill their food requirements for more days, they became their primary targets. And, to kill big animals only large implements could have been the need of the hour.
5. Later on, when number of big animals dwindled a bit and humans found it easier to kill small animals, which were much more in numbers making meeting of food requirements easy on daily basis, the later middle and upper Paleolithic man developed small implements using flake technology.
6. The fossils that have been found from the earlier ages prove that most of the animals killed or devoured by humans were big in size. This proves that humans were food gatherers and passing though a barbaric phase of their evolution. But, they were progressing rapidly.
7. All the sources of information on Paleolithic man point to one thing that the humans were totally dependent on the nature for all their needs. They were striving to adapt to the vagaries of the nature, which was very harsh as most of the earth was covered by ice during Pleistocene, which was the age of Paleolithic man. Humans were struggling for survival. Fresh water ponds were hard to find, during ice age smaller animals were not in great numbers, forests were not easily accessible due to ice coverage and also, better quality of rocks were not exposed to them for making improved tools. But, they survived using their fast evolving brain. The entire age was the age of food gatherers, who were yet to be introduced to any form of agriculture.
8. Evidence show that humans were not yet aware of the significance of fire. Though there is slight possibility that they might have seen some kind of fire. However, most of the scholar rule out this possibility saying that during ice age wild fire due to friction among the branches could not have occurred as the temperature could not have gone much above the freezing point. Whatever may be the case, it is a fact that humans ate uncooked food, both vegetarian and non-vegetarian. They ate fruits, some roots and some other produces of forests. They consumed raw meat of the animals, killed during hunting. They were essentially barbaric in nature.
9. There was settled habitation. Humans lived in caves and rock shelters. But, they lived in groups. There are enough evidence to prove this point. Scholars are unanimous in believing that humans lived in congregation out of safety concerns. They had learnt by now that only by living in groups they can fight with wild animals. This group habitation or congregation led to evolution of society.
10. No metal was being used during Paleolithic age. Pottery making has not come to the fore yet.
11. There was no specific pattern of disposal of dead bodies. This proves that the humans were yet to develop the emotional feelings for fellow beings and that there was no respect yet for those who died.
12. There has been no evidence of cloth making or use of cloth to protect their bodies against a very hostile nature. It is possible that the humans might have used the skin and hides of animal to guard themselves against icy winds. But, this can not be said conclusively for the lack of evidence.
13. Cave paintings are available. The evidence can be found on the inner walls of the caves at Bhimbetka, nearly 40 kilometres from Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh, at Machchhutavi in Andhra Pradesh, Patne in Maharashtra and Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh. It is possible that these sketches were made using burins developed in the upper Paleolithic age. In Mirzapur, a cave sketch shows an animal and a man with large boulder lifted above head behind that animal. This shows as if the man is getting ready to strike the animal with the boulder.
14. There are evidence in sketches that depict humans breaking and tearing fishes, fruits and other things. All such cave paintings belong to a period around thirty thousand BC. So, even the initial cave paintings of Bhimbetka belong to the upper Paleolithic age. This is an evidence of humans’ natural inclination towards arts.
· The evidence of Paleolithic habitation has been found all over the Indian sub-continent. The main river valleys which have thrown proof of Paleolithic habitation are as follows:
1. Sohan valley in Pakistan
2. Beas-Wainganga valley in Punjab (India)
3. Luni-Jojri valley in Rajasthan
4. Sirsa valley in Punjab and Haryana
5. Sabarmati-Mahe valley in Gujarat
6. Chambal-Betwa valley in Madhya Pradesh
7. Narmada valley in Madhya Pradesh
8. Belan valley in Uttar Pradesh
9. Godawari valley in Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh
10. Krishna-Vibha valley in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
11. Malprabha-Ghatprabha valleys in Karnataka
12. River valleys in Singhbhum region of Jharkhand
13. Damodar-Mahanadi valleys in West Bengal and Odisha
14. Kaveri valley in Tamil Nadu
· Following are the important sites of Paleolithic habitation:
1. Sohan: Adiyal, Balwaaland Chandal.
2. Punjab: Derda
3. Kashmir: Chauntara and Pahalgam
4. Rajasthan: Chittorgarh, Mysoregarh and Didwana
5. Gujarat: Medhamali and Visadi
6. Madhya Pradesh: Bhimbetka, Hathnala, Baghor and Maihar
7. Uttar Pradesh: Belan region, Mirzapur hills, Chakia Tahasil of Varanasi
8. Jharkhand: Hazaribagh
9. West Bengal: Bankura and Purulia
10. Odisha: Budha Valang, Mayurbhanj and Kyonjhar
11. Maharashtra: Naivasa, Bori, Inamgaon and Patne
12. Karnataka: Hungsi. This might have been an industrial site.
13. Andhra Pradesh: Kurnool, Nagarjunakonda, Renigunta, Machchhutavi Hill and Chintamanigaavi hill region
14. Tamil Nadu: Pallavaram, Attirampakkam, Budia Maim, Vanka and Gudiyan caves near Chennai. They exhibit a transition from lower to upper Paleolithic phases.
15. Only Kerala and the states of the northeast do not have any evidence of Paleolithic habitation in India. Assam has thrown some evidence but those are negligible.
16. Clearly, the Indian sub-continent has evidence of humans’ activities for over one lakh years.
