History: North India before Gautam Buddha

Remains at Kapilvastu: Brick structure dating back to 6th century BC at Ganwaria near Piprahwa, Balrampur, UP. Twenty-five rooms were found during excavation leading to identification of the lost city of Kapilvastu, the capital of King Shuddhodhan, the father of Mahatma Buddha. (Photo: Twitter/Indianhistorypics)

This period is also known as the era of Mahajanapadas. There were 16. This is also the phase of socio-religious movements that saw emergence or consolidation of Jainism, Buddhism, Bhagavat belief system and Brahmanism.

Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya provides details of the 16 Mahajanapadas, also in Pali literature. Another text Janavasabhasutta talks about 12 Mahajanapadas while Chullaniddesha has a slightly different list of Mahajanapadas. It counts 17 by adding Kalinga to the list and replacing Gandhara by Yona. Mahavastu’s list is also a little modified with Shivi and Dasharna coming in place of Gandhara and Kamboja.

The commonly held 16 Mahajanapadas were:

1.    Kashi in Varanasi

2.    Koshal in Ayodhya-Shravasti region or the Awadh region

3.    Anga in East Bihar around Champa, Bhagalpur-Munger

4.    Magadha in South Bihar around Girivraj, Rajgriha

5.    Vajji in North Bihar, around Vaishali, a congregation of tribes

6.    Malla in Pava in East UP, around Gorakhpur-Deoria, a congregation of tribes

7.    Chedi, in Bundelkhand region

8.    Vatsa in Kaushambi, near Allahabad/Prayagraj in UP

9.    Kuru in Indraprastha, in Delhi-Haryana region

10. Panchal in Kampilya, around Ruhelkhand region

11. Matsya in Viratnagar in Rajasthan

12. Shurasena in Mathura, in West UP and around Delhi

13. Asmaka or Asika, in Potana or Paithan in the source region of the Narmada

14. Avanti in Ujjaini and Mahishmati in Malwa region, Central India

15. Gandhara in Takshashila, NW Pakistan

16. Kamboja in Rajpur, west of Gandhara

Jain text Bhagavatisuttra provides the list with slightly different names for some of the Mahajanapadas. They are:

1.    Kashi

2.    Koshal

3.    Anga

4.    Vajji

5.    Magadh

6.    Banga

7.    Malaya

8.    Malaw

9.    Achchha

10. Vachchha

11. Kochchha

12. Padhya or Pundra

13. Ladha or Radh

14. Moli

15. Awadha

16. Sambhuttara

The Bhagavatisuttra mentions new Mahajanapadas not mentioned in Buddhist Anguttara Nikaya, such as Banga and Radh. The geographical location of Sambhuttara Mahajanapada is not clearly known. It is speculated that it might have been somewhere in the northwest region of ancient India. Achchha and Vachchha Mahajanapadas might have been located in Gujarat. Pundra was possibly located near Banga.

It is clear that two literary sources give two different sets of 16 Mahajanapadas. Some of the names are different. Historians have given more credibility to the list mentioned by the Anguttara Nikaya. What is significant is that the lists emphasise that big state-like units emerged in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bengal and Pakistan. All these Mahajanapadas were located north of the Vindhyas.

The thing is that Anguttara Nikaya mentions the names of Mahajanapadas that existed before Buddha. During Buddha’s period, Kashi was annexed by Koshal and Anga by Magadh, and thus ceased to exist. Asmaka was also probably annexed by Avanti during this period. The listing of Vajji indicates that the statehood of Videha had collapsed by this time.

Based on Anguttara Nikaya, the Mahajanapadas could be grouped into two: monarchy and republic.

1.    Monarchy: Anga, Magadha, Kashi, Koshal, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchal, Shurasena, Asmaka, Matsya, Avanti, Gandhara and Kamboj

2.    Republic: Vajji and Malla

KASHI

Varanasi was the capital of Kashi Mahajanapada. Varanasi was situated in the doab of the Varuna in the north and Asi in the south. Brahmadatta was its most notable and powerful king. He vanquished Koshal. Later, the equation changed and Kansa annexed Kashi to Koshal.

KOSHAL

Koshal was in the Awadh region. Shravasti was the capital of Koshal. During the Ramayana period, Ayodhya was the capital of Koshal. During Buddha’s time, Koshal split into two with Saket becoming the capital of the northern part and Shravasti of the southern part. Koshal was marked by Panchal on the west, the Gandak river in the east, Nepal in the north and River Sai in the south.

ANGA

Anga was situated in Bihar’s Bhagalpur and Munger districts. Champa was the capital of Anga. Champa has a unique contribution to the human history of personal hygiene. Shampoo owes its origin to Champa. Back then it was some kind of mixed oil that was used to clean and lubricate hair. The mixture was called Champu. The word ‘champi’ for head massage has its origin in Champa. Champu travelled to the west but it lost its presence and knowledge in India. Many centuries later, champu made its way back as shampoo.

Champa’s old name was Malini during the age of Mahabharata and Puranas. Dighanikaya tells that Mahagovinda was the architect of Champa. Its ruler Brahmadatta defeated Bhattiya of Magadha.

Champa has been mentioned as one of the six metropolises of the time in Mahaprinrvanasutra. Other metropolitan towns were Rajagriha, Shravasti, Saket, Kaushambi and Varanasi.

MAGADHA

Magadha was in South Bihar spread over Patna and Gaya. River Champa separated Magadha from Anga. Rajgriha, also known as Girivraja, was the capital of Magadh. Rajgriha was guarded by stone fortresses. It was marked by River Son in the west, Ganga in the north, Vindhyas in the south and Champa in the east.

VAJJI

Vajji was a federation of eight states. It has been considered as a republic by historians – an early form of republic. Four of the eight constituents were Vajji, Lichchhavi of Vaishali, Videha in Mithila and Jnatrika of Kundagram. The four others were Ugra, Bhoga, Ikshvaku and Kaurava.

Vaishali has been identified with Basadh in Bihar’s Muzaffarpur district, Videha in Nepal’s Janakpur district and Kundagram in North Vaishali.

MALLA

Malla was situated in Uttar Pradesh’s Deoria district. It was a federation that included the Mallas of Pava in Padrauna district and Kushinara in Kushinagar district. According to Kusa Jatak, Okkaka was the chief of Malla federation.

CHEDI/CHETI

Chedi was situated in the region now known as Bundelkhand. Sotthivati was its capital. Sottivati has been recognised as Shuktimati of Mahabharata. Shishupala was its ruler back then. Chetiya Jataka names Upachara as one of its kings.

VATSA

Vats was located in Uttar Pradesh’s Prayagraj (Allahabad) and Banda districts. Its capital was Kaushambi on the bank of River Yamuna. Vishnu Purana traces the origin of Kaushambi to Mahabharata’s Hastinapur.

Vishnu Purana says that after Hastinapur was swept away by River Ganga, its king Nichakshu (man without eyes) founded the city of Kaushambi. During Buddha’s time, its ruler was Udayan of Paurava dynasty.

Puranas identify Udayan’s father as Prantapa, who had conquered Champa. Remains of Udayan’s royal palace and a vihara (monastery) built by Shresthi Ghoshita (also known as Ghoshitaram) have been found at Kaushambi.

KURU

Kuru was located in Uttar Pradesh’s Meerut, Delhi and Thanesar. Its capital was Indraprastha. Hastinapur was within the Kuru Mahajanapada. Koravya was its ruler during Buddha’s time. Later, a republic was established here.

PANCHAL

Panchal was situated in Uttar Pradesh’s Bareilly, Badaun and Farrukhabad districts. Northern Panchal had its capital in Ahichhatra in Ramnagar in Bareilly. Southern Panchal had its capital in Kampilya in Kampil in Farrukhabad.

Famous city of Kanyakubja was situated in Panchal. In 600 BC, Kuru and Panchal constituted a republic.

MASTYA

Matsya Mahajanapada was in Rajasthan’s Jaipur, Alwar and Bharatpur. Its capital was Viratnagar, a city founded by a king named Virat.

SHURASENA

In Brajmandal, its capital was Mathura. Ancient Greeks termed this state as Saurasanoi and its Methora. According to Mahabharata and Purana, Shurasena was ruled by Yadu dynasty and Krishna was its ruler.

In Buddha’s time, Avantiputra was its ruler. He was a disciple of Buddha. His mother was an Avanti princess, daughter of Pradyot. Avantiputra facilitated propagation of Buddhism in Mathura.

AVANTI

Avanti was located in western and central Malwa region. Puranas attribute the foundation of Avanti to one of the Yadus called Haihaya. Avanti was ruled in two parts with River Vetravati dividing the northern Avanti from southern part.

North Avanti had its capital in Ujjayini and South Avanti in Mahishmati. North Avanti had iron mines and Ujjayini had blacksmiths who manufactured very high quality iron-weapons.

ASMAKA

Asmaka was situated on the bank of River Godavari in Andhra Pradesh. Its capital was Polti, also known by the names of Paithan, Pratishthan and Potan. Asmaka was the only Mahajanapada of the 16 such states to have been situated in South India. Puranas say Asmaka was founded by Ikshvaku rulers who established a monarchy here. According to Chullakalinga Jataka, its ruler Arun had conquered Kalinga.

GANDHARA

It is commonly held that Afghanistan’s Kandahar has its origin in Gandhara Mahajanapada, whose principal territories were around Peshawar and Rawalpindi in Pakistan. Takshashila was its capital. According to Ramayana, Takshashila was founded by Taksha, the son of Bharat.

Its second capital was Pushkaravati. Around 600 BC, Pukkusati or Pushkarsarin was its ruler. He established diplomatic ties with Bimbisar. He defeated Prodyot of Avanti.

KAMBOJ

Its principal region was South-West Kashmir including the territories of Poonch and Kapisha that corresponds to what is known as Kafiristan extending from Hindukush to Kabul. Its capital was Rajpur or Hataka. Later, a federal state was established here. Kautilya has described agriculture, animal husbandry, commerce and weapon-making as economic activities of Kambojians. Kamboj was noted for breeding high-quality horses.

EMERGENCE OF FOUR POWERFUL MONARCHIES

The 16 Mahajanapadas in the course of time gave rise to four powerful monarchical states. All the Mahajanapadas assimilated into one or the other monarchies. Mutual rivalry was the force behind the annihilation of these Mahajanapadas – a natural evolution of political power and ambition. The four resultant monarchies were:

1.    Koshal

2.    Vatsa

3.    Avanti

4.    Magadh

KOSHAL

Koshal continued to have its capital in Shravastri, identified with Setamohata village near Gonda in Uttar Pradesh. Before the advent of Buddha, Kansa was the king of Koshal and had annexed Kashi to expand his state. Mahakoshal, the son and successor of Kansa, expanded Koshal’s territories and economic might. Gain of Kashi made Koshal a very influential state. Kashi was an important centre of trade and hosiery. Its trade contact with Takshashila, Sauvira and other distant places were strong. The growing economic power of Koshal was the main reason behind its rivalry with Magadh.

During the time of Buddha, Prasenjit was the king of Koshal. He had established friendly relationship with Magadh by marrying his sister Mahakoshala, also known as Koshaladevi to Bimbisar. He had given Kashi or at least a portion of it to Bimbisar in marriage as gift.

However, during the reign of Bimbisar’s son Ajatshatru, relationship between Magadh and Koshal embittered. Samyukta Nikaya provides details of revival of rivalry. The reason for bitterness was Kashi, which Prasenjit had taken back after the death of Bimbisar. Prasenjit made another move to make peace with Ajatshatru by marrying his daughter Wajira to him. He also returned Kashi to Magadh.

During the reign of Prasenjit, Koshal was at the pinnacle of its glory. It ruled over Shakyas of Kapilvastu, Kalam of Ksaputta, Malla of Pava and Kushinara, Koliya of Ramagama, Moriya of Pippalivana et al. Prasenjit was a follower of Buddha and preaching.

Prasenjit was succeeded by Vidudabh, who had usurped the throne with the help of Dighacharan, a minister of Prasenjit. It was said that Vidudabh was the son of a Shakya maid-servant (daasi). This became a cause of strife between the Shakyas and Vidudabh. The maid-servant was known by the name of Vasabhakhattiya and was married to Prasenjit.

Nothing is known about the successors of Vidudabh. Koshal was perhaps soon annexed by Magadh.

River Rapti was an important river in Koshal. Its name back then was Achiravati.

VATSA

Udayan was the most famous king of Vatsa. Once on hunting, Udayan was captured by Pradyot, the king of Avanti. During his captivity, Udayan fell in love with Pradyot’s daughter Vasavdatta and fled Avanti with her. Later, they married and consequently, friendship between Vats and Avanti was established.

According to Sumsumargiri (?, Bhagga republic accepted the suzerainty of Udayan and Udayan’s son Bodhikumar resided there.

According to Bhash, Udayan had married Pdmavati, the daughter of Darshaka, the king of Magadha – thus befriending Magadha as well.

Udayan turned to Buddhism and was initiated into it by famous monk Pindol. This time, Kaushambi had several Buddhist mathas, the most famous of them was Ghoshitaram’s.

AVANTI

Pradyot was its famous king. He owed his crowning to his father Ripunjaya’s minister Pulik, who was the last Amatya or a high-ranking minister of Magadha’s Brihadatta or Brihadrath dynasty. Pulik dethroned Ripunjaya and installed Pradyot as the king. Buddhist text Mahavagg calls him Chand-Pradyot signaling a strong and stubborn military policy adopted by him.

Avanti was a powerful and prosperous state due to its richness in resources that included iron mines and blacksmith skills of its workers. Pradyot was once treated by Magadh king Bimbisar’s physician Jeevak for jaundice.

Pradyot was initiated into Buddhism by Mahakachchayan, a famous monk of the time. Pradyot was succeeded by Palak, Vishakhayupa, Ajak, Nandivardhan in sequence. They were eliminated by Shishunag of Magadh.

MAGADH

The real founder of Magadh monarchy was Bimbisar. Magadh emerged as the most powerful empire of ancient India. Patliputra became its imperial capital. Bimbisar’s son Ajatshatru founded Patliputra, which was built under the supervision of his ministers Sumidha and Vassakara.

REPUBLICS IN INDIA DURING BUDDHA’S TIME

Initially, it was believed that only monarchies existed in India. Ridge Davids was the first scholar to rediscover the existence of republics in ancient India. Both Buddhist and Jain texts mention about the existence of republics in various parts of india. Panini also wrote about republics. Kautilya classifies republics into two groups:

1.    Vartashastropajivi: Those living or thriving on agriculture, animal husbandry, commerce and weapon-making as economic activities. Kamboja and Saurashtra were listed as examples.

2.    Rajashabdopjivi:  Those republics which used the tile of Raja for their chiefs. Lichchhavi, Vrijji, Malla, Madra, Kukar, Panchal etc were listed as examples.

The coins of Malwa, Yaudheya and Arjunayan talk about republics and not kings.

The republics of the past were not the same in character that we see today. They could be called aristocracy. The administration or statehood sought its authority not from the masses directly but from an elite class of electors.

SHAKYAS OF KAPILVASTU

Kapilvastu identified with Tilaurakot in Nipal was its capital. Other important towns of the republic were Chatuma, Samagama, Khomadussa, Shilavati, Nagarak, Devadaha, Sakkar etc.

Shakyas did not marry outside their own blood. Buddha was from the Shakya clan. His mother was from Devadaha. This republic was destroyed by Vidudabh, the son of Koshal king Prasenjit by his marriage with a Shakya maid-servant.

Kapilvastu was bordered in the north by the Himalayas, in the west and south by River Rapti, and in the east by River Rohini.

BHAGGA OF SUMSUMAR OR SUSHMAGIRI

Sumsumar or Sushmagiri mountain is now identified with Chunar in Mirzapur district in Uttar Pradesh. Bhaggas accepted the suzerainty of the Vatsas. Bodhikumar resided here.

BULI OF ALAKAPPA

Alakappa is identified with Shahabad-Ara-Muzaffarpur axis of Bihar. Probably, Vethadwipa (Betia) was its capital. Bulis or Buliyas were Buddhists. Accordring to Mahaparinirvanasutta, they acquired ashes of Buddha after his death and built a stupa there.

KALAM OF KESAPUTTA

Kesaputta was situated west of Koshal. Alar Kalam, one of Buddha’s early teachers who taught him yoga and meditation, was from this state. He lived near Uruvela. Kalama accepted suzerainty of Koshal.

KOLIYA OF RAMAGRAMA

Ramagrama was situated east of Shakyas. In the south, it was bordered by River Sarayu. River Rohini separated Koliyas from Shakyas. Its capital Ramagrama has been identified with modern Ramgarh in Gorakhpur district in Uttar Pradesh. Koliyas were famous for their police force.

MALLA OF KUSHINARA

Kushinara is identified with present-day Kasiya. According to Balmiki Ramayana, Mallas of Kushinara were descendents of Chandraketu, the son of Lakshamana.

MALLA OF PAVA

Pava is identified with Padrauna in eastern Uttar Pradesh. They were militant in nature. They fought against Ajatshatru of Patliputra by forming a federation with Lichchhavis of Vaishali. They were defeated by Ajatshatru.

MORIYA OF PIPPALIVANA

They were a branch of Shakyas. According to Mahavamsatika, Moriyas fled towards the Himalayas to escape the wrath of Vidudabh, the Koshal king and the son of Prasenjit by a Shakya maid-servant.

The fleeing Moriyas developed Pippalivana. Here, they organised and developed peacock rearing. Peacock, called Mayur in Sanskrit, possibly led to them being called Moriyas, and probably developed into mighty Mauryas of Magadh empire.

Pippalivana is identified with a village, Rajadhani near Kusumhi in Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh.

LICHCHHAVIS OF VAISHALI

Its capital was at Basad. Lichchhavis built the famous Kuttagarshala in Mahavana, where Buddha delivered his sermon. Lichchhavis were powerful and prosperous. In Buddha’s time, Chetak was its ruler. His daughter Chellana was married to Bimbisara. His sister Trishala was the mother of Mahavir Jain.

VIDEHA OF MITHILA

Videha spread from Nepal to Bhagalpur in Bihar with Darbhanga falling in centre. Its capital was Janakpur, in Nepal. Mithila was a famous trading centre where traders from Shravasti would come to trade with the locals.

LAW AND ADMINISTRAION IN REPUBLICS

Not much information is available about enactment of law and working of administration in these republic states.

Head or president of the executive of the republic was an elected person or official, called Raja. The position was held by men. His prime concern was to maintain peace and internal coordination.

Other top officials were Uparaja, Senapati, and Bhandagarik or treasurer. But the real power was vested in a central committee of large membership. These members were also sometimes called Rajas. It appears that Raja could have been the title or address for the chief of units of administration.

According to Ekapanna Jataka, there were 7,707 Rajas in the central committee of Lichchhavis. In Shakyas’, the number of Rajas stood at 500.

Ekapanna Jataka gives maximum information about Lichchhavis.

Whenever a dispute or crisis arose, the rajas of the central committee met and decided the course of action by voting. For example, when a dispute arose between the Shakyas and Koshal over the Rohini river water, the Shakya’s central committee voted in favour of war. But later when Koshal king Vidudabh laid a seize of Shakya capital, the central committee decided to surrender to Vidudabh’s forces to end the war accepting his lordship.

The central committee decided the appointment of Senapati in the Lichchhavi republic. In one instance, after the death of military commander called Khanda, the central committee of the Lichchhavis elected Singh to be the new military commander.

Mallas of Kushinara held a discussion in their central committee regarding Buddha’s cremation and articles belonging to him. Buddha breathed his last in the Kushinara.

The general working of these republics was probably similar to modern democratic parliaments. The working of the committee was looked after by an official called Asannapannapaka. Literature confirms that the concept of quorum was there. Secret ballot system for voting was prevalent. Official conducting voting was called Shlaka-grahaka. A vote was called Chhand.

REMARKS

It is often said that the sword that Bimbisar drew from its case was put back in the case by Ashoka in the eleventh year of his rule. By then, the Magadh empire had reached its territorial climax.

Progression of society in history: Rig Vedic age was of the age of tribes. There were tribal communities. Later Vedic age was of Janpadas formed by consolidation of tribal communities. It was followed by the age of Mahajanapadas that was characterized by bigger and massive Janapadas which were controlled by one or more tribal communities. This was the age of the beginning of state in India.

Mahajanapada was the highest unit of state. Information about this age is available in literature. But literature places these Mahajanapadas north of the Vindhyas. Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya gives the list of 16 Mahajanapadas, all north of the Vindhyas.

Buddhist text, Diggha Nikaya’s Janavasabh Sukta gives a list of 10 Mahajanapadas of the time. It mentions them in the pair of five. Besides Mahajanapadas, it also talks about Janpadas, smaller units.

Other sources say that there were other Janas and “half-civilised” tribes. Since the Mahajanapadas were in lead role, the period is called the Age of Mahajanapadas. This was also the age of advent of Magadh imperialism. The Mahajanapadas and Janapadas of the period did not have same administrative system. Same administrative systems were not there even during the Later Vedic Age. Like that, all three forms of administration continued to be in vogue – monarchy, republican and federal. Of these, republican and federal administrative systems were closer in nature.

These three forms of governance found practical expression in two forms – monarchical and republican-federal mixed. Republican-federal system were primarily found in Bihar and the terai of Nepal, and also in the northwestern region of India.

Government in Surasena and Chedi were essentially federal in nature. Vajji and Mala had republican form of government. Bihar and Nepal’s terai were important regions for republican governments. Such states were:

•         Shakya of Kapilvastu
•         Buliya of Alakappa
•         Koliya of Ramagrama
•         Malla of Pava
•         Malla of Kushinara
•         Moriya of Pippalivana
•         Lichchhavi of Vaishali
•         Nay/Nath of Vaishali
•         Kalam of Kelaputra (New Vaishali)
•         Magga of Sushmagiri

Videh of Mithila is also spoken in the same vein of republican government. All these republics were in North Bihar and the terai of Nepal. They were numerous and some of them had formed a federation. One such federation was Vajji Federation, which comprised of most republics of the region. The federation was formed for security or protection and facilitation of civic works.

They felt threatened from monarchical governments or states. There were several Janapadas that followed monarchical form of government but four were more influential. They were:

-        Magadh Mahajanapada of Girivraj or Rajgriha

-        Vatsa Mahajanapada of Kaushambi

-        Koshal Mahajanapada of Ayodhya-Shravasti

-        Avanti Mahajanapada of Ujjaini or Mahishmati

These four Mahajanapadas were special in military power. They were efficient in the use of iron. They believed in the principle of centralization of power. They followed the principle of expansion in foreign policy.

During this period, these four Mahajanapadas expanded their territories at the cost of the Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and Janas irrespective of their form of government, monarchical or republican.

Of these, the position of Magadh Mahajanapada was different from other three due to specific reasons:

• Geographic
• Economic
• Military
• Technological
• Degree of propensity of centralization of power

Magadha Mahajanapada saw continued expansion of its territories due to these factors. Its size continued to increase. The expansion process that began in sixth century BC continued till fourth century BC almost without a break. The expansion happened at the cost of others.

Propensity of expansion remained a constant with the Magadh Mahajanapada even though the ruling dynasty kept changing. Magadh was ruled by Haryanka dynasty, followed by Shishunag and Nanda ruling families. But change of dynasties did not bring a change in expansion policy.

The Maurya dynasty took the Magadh dynasty’s expansion to its climax. Due to the dominance of Magadh Mahajanapada during this period, it is also known as the age of the rise and growth of Magadh imperialism.

Harappa: Who were Indus people and how they lived?

Pashupati Seal of Indus Valley Civilisation at the National Museum, New Delhi. (Photo: Sindhustan/Prabhash K Dutta)

Prabhash K Dutta

New Delhi

The quest to establish the identity of the people who made one of the greatest civilisations on the earth along the Indian rivers from the Indus to the Saraswati (Ghaggar-Hakra) and up to the Narmada is an ongoing exercise. The fact is we don't yet know. But we know partly how they might have evolved their civilisation and how they lived based on evidence excavated in the regions of India and Pakistan.

First, let's dig their background a bit. Nothing happens without a background and context. Let's see what was there before the magnificent people of the Indus Valley Civilisation made their advent.

THE OLDER PEOPLE

These older people were not actually old. They might not have had the chance of getting old as we perceive oldness today. Most probably, they were dying young. But we are not sure. We are not sure because they did not leave behind something in the language or signs that we understand fully. We depend on materials that we find during actual digging.

The oldest archaeological evidence of human habitation in India comes from Palaeolithic Age in Soan Valley, now in Pakistan and in South India chiefly in and around Chennai. Evidence of human habitation from Paleolithic Age is also found in the Belan Valley in Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh, deserts of Didwana, and caves and rocks of Bhimbetka near Bhopal.

Mesolithic sites of human occupancy has been found in Chhotanagpur Plateau region in Central India, and also south of the Krishna, Birbhanpur in West Bengal, Timmeveli in Tamil Nadu, Bogor in Rajasthan, Langhraj in Gujarat, Bhimbetka and Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh and Sarai Nahar Rai in Uttar Pradesh.

IMMEDIATE NEIGHBOURS IN HISTORY

Neolithic sites of humans are mostly found in the northwest region and the Deccan. Neolithic settlements at Mehargarh in Baluchistan seem to be the oldest dating around 7,000 BC. 

Humans began to domesticate animals and cultivate plants during Neolithic period. Dogs, goats and sheep were probably the first to be domesticated. Among plants, wheat and barley were the earliest cereals grown.

Neolithic people used ochre-coloured pottery. Wheel was an important invention.

Chalcolithic settlements are dated 1800-1000 BC. This period is defined by the use of copper by humans in India. Chalcolithic cultures seem to have existed over a wide area extending from the Chhotanagpur Plateau to the Upper Gangetic basin. Some of the other Chalcolithic sites are Brahmapuri near Mysorer and Navada Toli on the Narmada. But bronze tools were almost absent in India unlike Crete, Egypt and Mesopotamia.

From the Neolithic and Chalcolithic sites emerged the settlements of Harappan or Indus Valley Civilisation. This civilisation came to notice through the works of excavators such as Daya Ram Sahni, Marshall and his colleague RD Bannerji in 1920s. More excavations were carried out during 1960s under Sir Mortimer Wheeler.

Dancing Girl of Mohenjodaro at Baroda Museum. (Photo taken in 2018: Sindhustan/Prabhash K Dutta)

THE WINGS OF INDUS

Prominent sites excavated are Ropar near Chandigarh, Lothal near Ahmedabad, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Kot Diji and Chanhu Dao in Sindh, Dholavira in Kutch district, Banawali in Hisar district and Sutkagendor near the Makran coast.

Archaeological research has established the gradual evolution of Harappan civilisation from indigenous sources. The earliest evidence of the beginning of agricultural communities comes from a place called Mehargarh near Bolan Pass. It is a Neolithic settlement estimated to have been there by 7000 BC. People of this area grew wheat and barley. They tendered sheep and goats as early as fifth millennium BC.

In the Quetta Valley at the site of Damb Sadaal, large structures with brick walls dating from the beginning of the third millennium BC have been found. These people were also using clay seals and copper objects.

In the western Indus plains, a place called Rehman Dheri has an early Indus township that was excavated. All these sites show evidence of contact with Persian Gulf towns and those of Central Asia.

The transition from pre-Harappan to the mature Harappan culture is best evidenced at Amri, to the south-east of Baluchistan. A distinctive culture appeared here at the beginning of the third millennium BC. Here, people lived in houses of stone or mud-brick. They constructed some kind of a granary. They painted animal motifs such as humped bull on their pottery.

After a series of evolving stages, it gave way to what is known as the Harappan civilisation.

BUT WHERE ACTUALLY?

The Harappan cultue was spread over the whole of Sindh, Baluchistan, almost whole of Punjab, northern Rajasthan, Kathiawar and Gujarat. It was not just confined to the Indus Valley. Scholars generally believe that the civilisation could be better represented by a Harappa-Ghaggar (Kalibangan)-Mohanjodaro axis as its heartland. 

However, they also occupied such faraway places as Shatughai in Northeast Afghanistan or Surkotada in Gujarat. They probably settled in these places for trade. These settlements possibly formed the wide trade network and gave economic independence to each Harappan region.

Recent C-14 datings indicate the period of the mature Harappan civilisation could be around 2900/2800-1800 BC.

LET'S GO WINDOW SHOPPING

Harappa

It was located on the bank of River Ravi. Harappa was the first site to have been excavated in united India. That is why this civilization was named so. It is still not known what the people of this civilization called themselves or which name they identified with. A substantial section of the Hrappan population was engaged in activities other than food production such as administration, trade, craft work and religion.

Mohenjodaro

It was located on the bank of River Indus. Mohenjodaro was the largest Harappan city. It had a population of about 35,000. It was an unusually high number for people living in one city in those times. 

Another standout feature of Mohenjodaro was that the height of its buildings was more than 75 feet. This has been found in the remains and debris of the buildings. How much more was the height of those buildings is not known.

Kalibangan

Its remains have been found the dried-up bed of River Ghaggar. It was excavated in 1960 under the guidance of BK Thapar. This area had the largest concentration of the Harappan settlements. The area has yielded evidence of early Harappan period.

Lothal

Along with Rangapur and Surkotada, Lothal was an important centre of the Harappan civilization. Remains of Harappan Lothal city have been found in the coastal flat plains of the Gulf of Cambay. This place seems to have been an outpost for sea-trade with the contemporary West Asian societies. Its excavator SS Rao claimed to have discovered a dockyard here.

Sutkagendor

It was located near the Makran coast which is near the Pakistan-Iran border. It is now a dry inhospitable plain. The town had a citadel surrounded by a stone-wall built for defence. This place was probably used for sea-route trade.

Gilgamesh Seat at the National Museum, New Delhi. (Photo taken in 2016: Sindhustan/Prabhash K Dutta)

THEY BUILT TOWNS WITH A PLAN

Each city was divided into a high citadel area and a low residential area. The citadel area had essential institutions of civil and religious life. The residential area had urban population living there. In Mohanjodaro and Harappa, the citadel was surrounded by a brick-wall. At Kalibanga, both citadel and the lower city were surrounded by a wall.

Citadel areas of different cities have been found to have some remarkable structures. For example, Mohenjodaro had the Great Bath, large granary and an assembly hall. Harappa had a number of granaries arranged in two rows of six rooms each with a central passage separating them. Kalibangan and Lothal had fire altars as their most significant discoveries.

The houses were constructed with kiln-made and also unbaked bricks but not of stones. The bathrooms and drains were invariably built with kiln-made or pucca bricks made waterproof by adding gypsum.

Their city roads met one another at 90-degree angles. They had broader main roads and narrower link roads. Their roads were broad enough to let two vehicles pass at a time with ease.

Their roads did not possibly have water-logging problem. They built a network of drains to make sure water did not log or left unattended. Their drains connected every house to main drainage system. Their roadside drains had man-hole and also hand-holes fitted with clay grills that worked as filters. These grills filtered garbage if somebody threw it deliberately or accidentally. The holes were meant for cleaning the drains allowing it carry waste water without getting choked unlike present-day municipal drains in Indian cities.

THEY GREW THEIR OWN FOOD 

The Harappan people cultivated wheat and barley, peas and dates, and sesame and mustard. The last two were used for oil. People cultivated paddy as early as 1800 BC in Lothal. Evidence of paddy cultivation has been found in Rangapur as well. The Harappans were the first people in the world to grow cotton.

They irrigated their crops. Irrigation depended on irregular flooding of the rivers of Punjab and Sindh. Evidence of canal irrigation practice has not been found.

Farmers probably used wooden plough for preparing their fields for cropping. Evidence of furrowed field has been found at Kalibangan. Wood of the plough could not have survived so long. They probably used a toothed harrow.

Burnt wheat, dates and shilajit from Indus Valley Civilisation at National Museum. (Photo taken in 2016: Sindhustan/Prabhash K Dutta)

AND BRED THEIR STOCK TOO 

Besides sheep and goat, people of this civilization domesticated humped cattle, buffaloes and elephants. Bones of camel have been found at Kalibangan. Historians believe camel could have been a rare animal for the Harappans. Evidence is limited.

Some historians believe that horse was unknown to Harappans. Some others deny this assumption pointing out to horse jaw found at Rana Ghundai, remains at Surkotada, more evidence from a superficial level in Mohenjodaro and a doubtful terracotta figurine from Lothal.

Several varieties of deer were used as game by the Harappans.

A single instance of Indian rhinoceros has been found from Amri, southeast of Baluchistan.

TRADE AND BUSINESS IN BLOOD 

Trade might have been both overland and maritime as indicated by the occurrence of small terracotta boats and above all a big brick-built dock at Lothal as excavated by SR Rao’s team.

The system of weights and measures was excellent. For weighing goods, small as well as large, perfectly made cubes of agate were employed. The weights followed a binary system in the lower denominations such as 1,2,4,8—64 and then going to 160 and beyond that in the decimal multiples of 16 such as 320, 640, 1,600, 3,200 etc.

For length measurements, strips of shell were used. These strips were non-shrinkable in heat and cold. The measurement of length was based upon a unit of foot, 37.6 cm and a unit of cubit of 51.8 to 53.6 cm.

They imported or brought from outside their region a lot of goods. Copper was brought from South India, Baluchistan and Arabia. There was a copper mine at Khetri in Rajasthan and also in Baluchistan.

Gold was brought from South India, where Kolar fields were productive till recently, Afghanistan and Persia or Iran. Silver was brought from Afghanistan and Iran.

Clay figurines made by Indus people. (Photo taken in 2018 at Baroda Museum: Sindhustan/Prabhash K Dutta)

Lapis Lazuli, a deep blue precious stone, was brought from Badakshan in Northeast Afghanistan. Turquoise (blue to green mineral) was brought from Kashmir and Iran. Jade was brought from Central Asia. Agate (variety of colours), chalcedony (multiple colours) and carnelian (brownish red) were brought from Saurashtra and other parts of West India.

The Harappans used seal and other small objects for stamping their goods, which have been found in Mesopotamian centres. Mesopotamian literature speak of merchants of Ur (a local city) as carrying on trade with foreign countries. Among these foreign countries, the most frequently mentioned are Tilmun, Magan and Meluhha.

Historians have identified Tilmun or Dilmun with the island of Bahrain in the Persian Gulf, Magan as Makan with Oman or if not, some other part of Saudi Arabia. Meluhha or Meluha is now generally believed to mean India known to Mesopotamian traders from Indus region and Saurashtra.

THEY WERE CRAFTY. WILL YOU CALL THEM ENGINEERS TOO?

Spinning and weaving cotton and wool were important craft practices in the Harappan centres. Bead-making might have been a profitable business. Beads of gold, silver, copper, faience, steatite, semi-precious stones, shells and ivory were made.

Seal-making was another flourishing craft of the time and place. Square or oblong seals of ivory, faience, steatite were common. Seals were beautifully glazed and carved with motifs of animals, birds, men and gods.

Terracotta manufacture included a large number of small figurines such as children’s toys. Some of the designs that have continued till recent times included string-climbing monkey and head-moving bull.

Bricklaying appears to have been yet another profitable venture. Harappan people used bricks on mass scaled. Their structures and roads used different types of bricks.

Pottery making was developed. Potteries were made chiefly of red clay which was turned on a fast lathe, glazed and ornamented with black bands and/or occasionally with figures of birds, animals and geometrical designs.

Metal working was highly skilled craft of the Indus people. They made fine gold jewelleries, bronze implements, copper beakers, chisels, saws and knives of different metals. They used cire perdue method (also called lost wax method of metal casting in which a molten metal is poured into a mould that has been created using a wax model) for casting bronze. The famous figurine of the dancing girl recovered from Mohenjodaro was made by this method.

Stone sculpture was rare and the craft appears to have been underdeveloped. The bearded man-head found at Mohenjodaro is, however, a famous piece of stone sculpture.

THEIR SCIENCE

The Harappans knew mining. They were also adept at manufacturing gypsum cement which was used to join stones and even metals. They knew how to make long-lasting paints and dyes. Mohenjodaro had a public bath worked by an ingenious hydraulic system..

The axes, chisels, knives, spearheads etc made of stone and bronze seem to have been produced on a mass scale at places such as Sukkur, in Sindh on the western bank of the Indus. 

THEY WERE WOMEN OF LETTERS. DID YOU ACTUALLY ASK ABOUT THEIR LITERACY RATE? 

The people of Indus Valley Civilisation knew how to write. But what they wrote is not known. Their script has not been deciphered. However, overlaps of letters on some of the potsherds found from Kalibangan show that the writing was boustrophedon, from right to the left and then from left to the write in alternate lines. It has been referred to as proto-Dravidian though their connection with Dravidian languages or scripts has not been established.

Bearded Man of Indus at Baroda Museum. (Photo taken in 2018: Sindhustan/Prabhash K Dutta)

AN ARTICLE OF FAITH, OR RELIGION? 

Not much is known about the belief system of the Indus Valley Civilisation people but they seem to have practised some form of it. Whether their belief system was organised like later religions is not known. However, there have been figurines, structures and findings that suggest they believed in some forms of gods.

Mother goddess appears to be an important deity of worship. She was possibly worshipped as a symbol of fertility. Clay figures have been found of mother goddess. In one such example, a goddess is shown growing a plant from her vagina.

Proto-Shiva could have been the most important male god. Figure resembling the traditional Pashupati Mahadeva has been found. A seated figure surrounded by various animals carved on a small stone has been found.

Numerous symbols of phallus and woman’s sex organs made of stone have been found. They might have been the objects of worship. Shakti and Shiva are often considered as the two pre-Aryan gods in the line with the theory that Aryans came to India from Central Asia and brought a new range of gods and goddesses along with a different belief system with them.

Peepal (sacred fig) appears to have been sacred and so was the bull. Peepal continues to be a sacred tree to a large number of Indians.

THEY WERE EMOTIONAL IN DEATHS FOR SURE

Evidence found in excavation suggests that some Indus Valley Civilisation people buried their dead in graves. It is evident from the discovery of a large cemetery in Harappa. Some others buried their dead ones in urn – urn-burial was practised.

They might have preferred cremation for the evidence of burials for large population over more than a thousand years during the peak of their civilisation is meagre.

The Indus people probably believed in life after death. Their graves contained household pottery, ornaments and interestingly mirrors. These items might have originally belonged to the deceased. The basic idea still continues. The family of the deceased often gives away the items that were on the body of the deceased in her final moments. These include clothes and ornaments, and at times bed in which she was breathed her last. This practice is also seen in the form of daan (gift) that is given to the priests performing funeral rituals for the deceased. All articles of daily use are given to the priests believing that these items would be of use for the deceased in the after-life.

The bodies were buried fully extended. The head of the deceased person was generally kept pointing towards the north. This practice still continues among a large number of Indian communities.

This is not all about the Indus people. But I had only this much of time today.

 

 

PALEOLITHIC AGE

Paleolithic Age roughly corresponds with the geological stratographic age, Pleistocene. It was spread over the Indian sub-continent between two lakh fifty thousand to one lakh BC. Paleolithic Age is divided into three phases on the basis of the types of stone tools and implements and techniques used to make them:

1. Lower Paleolithic Age: 2.5 to 1.0 Lakh BC

2. Middle Paleolithic Age: 1.0 lakh to 40 thousand BC

3. Upper Paleolithic Age: 40 thousand to 10 thousand BC

Following are the sources to know about the Paleolithic man:

1. Old river course

2. Water bodies: Stationary water bodies

3. Tools recovered from river basins and other places

4. Paleolithic fossils

5. Sketches/ lines drawn on the walls of the caves

Implements or tools of the Paleolithic Age are as follows:

· All the implements and tools of the Paleolithic age were made of stones only

· On the basis of the quality of stones, these implements can be divided into three types:

1. Quartzite

2. Chalcedonic

3. Sandstone

· All of them were hard stone and could not have been broken into smaller fragments for the purpose of tool making. That is why the tools of Paleolithic age were larger in shape and size.

· On the basis of their shapes, the implements and tools of Paleolithic age could be divided into following types:

1. Hand Axe: This was the oldest tool developed by the humans. It was used to cut something into smaller parts. It was broad at base and tapered towards the end. It was held in hand from the broader end.

2. Cleaver: It was double edged implement used to cut trees and make pieces of huge trunks.

3. Discoid core: It was big rounded stone used to kill an animal either in defence or for food.
 

4. Chopper: It was also a big stone sharpened along at least one edge. It was also used to cut objects. (Gandasa)

These were the four basic implements used by the Paleolithic men first, and all were big stone tools. It seems that all these tools were made of naturally found large stones, which were put to use by Paleolithic people. This technique of tool making is known as Conglomerate Boulder Technique. All the four above mentioned implements were made of using this technique. Later on, humans developed techniques to make specific implements by cutting or breaking large boulders according to their needs and wishes. This technique of cutting boulders to make implements is known as flaking technology, which saw use of brains in cutting and shaping implements according to humans’ needs and imagination.

· The flaking technology produced two types of implements: Flake tools, which were smaller in size as they were cut or broken from the large boulders. They were simply called flakes. Second was the core implement, which was the main part of the original large boulder. It is called core tool. Owing to this technological development humans went to make better implements and tools using these flakes.

5. (Side) Scrapper: It was the first improved implement made by using flake technique. It had a sharp edge while the other side was developed as such to make a comfortable grip to hold on. Scrapper might have been used to fleece animals or remove bark of tree trunks. Scrappers stamp the first evidence of use of improved technology by Paleolithic man. (Khurachani)

6. Burins: (It is equivalent to Randa/ Takshini of modern days’ carpenters). It was used to draw lines or sketches on the walls of the caves and to make holes in tree trunks. It was a quality implement.

Of the six implements basic four were used during Lower Paleolithic age. Flaking technique came into use during Middle Paleolithic age. Flakes were being used this time around along with core tools. During Upper Paleolithic age improved flake tools like side scrappers and burins were developed.

· Technological development: Conglomerate Boulder Technique was employed in Lower Paleolithic age. Flaking technology was used in middle Paleolithic age while during Upper Paleolithic age technology further developed and free flaking, step on flaking, block on block flaking and di-polar flaking techniques were employed to make tools.

· On the basis of the nature of the stone tools, one can have an idea about the needs of the Paleolithic man.

1. They needed protection against wild animals and gathered food from forests.

2. Initially they used implements which were defensive in nature. Later on, they developed aggressive/offensive implements.

3. There were two sources to meet food related requirements: meat from animals and fruits from forests. So, the humans developed such implements that can meet their requirements. They developed implements to cut dead animals, fleece them and mash their flesh.

4. Their implements and tools were large in size. This might have been a case of meeting necessities. Large boulders were naturally available and big animals were large in number making easy availability of food for humans, who just had to kill those animals to feed on. Further, killing a big animal could fulfill their food requirements for more days, they became their primary targets. And, to kill big animals only large implements could have been the need of the hour.

5. Later on, when number of big animals dwindled a bit and humans found it easier to kill small animals, which were much more in numbers making meeting of food requirements easy on daily basis, the later middle and upper Paleolithic man developed small implements using flake technology.

6. The fossils that have been found from the earlier ages prove that most of the animals killed or devoured by humans were big in size. This proves that humans were food gatherers and passing though a barbaric phase of their evolution. But, they were progressing rapidly.

7. All the sources of information on Paleolithic man point to one thing that the humans were totally dependent on the nature for all their needs. They were striving to adapt to the vagaries of the nature, which was very harsh as most of the earth was covered by ice during Pleistocene, which was the age of Paleolithic man. Humans were struggling for survival. Fresh water ponds were hard to find, during ice age smaller animals were not in great numbers, forests were not easily accessible due to ice coverage and also, better quality of rocks were not exposed to them for making improved tools. But, they survived using their fast evolving brain. The entire age was the age of food gatherers, who were yet to be introduced to any form of agriculture.

8. Evidence show that humans were not yet aware of the significance of fire. Though there is slight possibility that they might have seen some kind of fire. However, most of the scholar rule out this possibility saying that during ice age wild fire due to friction among the branches could not have occurred as the temperature could not have gone much above the freezing point. Whatever may be the case, it is a fact that humans ate uncooked food, both vegetarian and non-vegetarian. They ate fruits, some roots and some other produces of forests. They consumed raw meat of the animals, killed during hunting. They were essentially barbaric in nature.

9. There was settled habitation. Humans lived in caves and rock shelters. But, they lived in groups. There are enough evidence to prove this point. Scholars are unanimous in believing that humans lived in congregation out of safety concerns. They had learnt by now that only by living in groups they can fight with wild animals. This group habitation or congregation led to evolution of society.

10. No metal was being used during Paleolithic age. Pottery making has not come to the fore yet.

11. There was no specific pattern of disposal of dead bodies. This proves that the humans were yet to develop the emotional feelings for fellow beings and that there was no respect yet for those who died.

12. There has been no evidence of cloth making or use of cloth to protect their bodies against a very hostile nature. It is possible that the humans might have used the skin and hides of animal to guard themselves against icy winds. But, this can not be said conclusively for the lack of evidence.

13. Cave paintings are available. The evidence can be found on the inner walls of the caves at Bhimbetka, nearly 40 kilometres from Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh, at Machchhutavi in Andhra Pradesh, Patne in Maharashtra and Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh. It is possible that these sketches were made using burins developed in the upper Paleolithic age. In Mirzapur, a cave sketch shows an animal and a man with large boulder lifted above head behind that animal. This shows as if the man is getting ready to strike the animal with the boulder.

14. There are evidence in sketches that depict humans breaking and tearing fishes, fruits and other things. All such cave paintings belong to a period around thirty thousand BC. So, even the initial cave paintings of Bhimbetka belong to the upper Paleolithic age. This is an evidence of humans’ natural inclination towards arts.

· The evidence of Paleolithic habitation has been found all over the Indian sub-continent. The main river valleys which have thrown proof of Paleolithic habitation are as follows:

1. Sohan valley in Pakistan

2. Beas-Wainganga valley in Punjab (India)

3. Luni-Jojri valley in Rajasthan

4. Sirsa valley in Punjab and Haryana

5. Sabarmati-Mahe valley in Gujarat

6. Chambal-Betwa valley in Madhya Pradesh

7. Narmada valley in Madhya Pradesh

8. Belan valley in Uttar Pradesh

9. Godawari valley in Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh

10. Krishna-Vibha valley in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh

11. Malprabha-Ghatprabha valleys in Karnataka

12. River valleys in Singhbhum region of Jharkhand

13. Damodar-Mahanadi valleys in West Bengal and Odisha

14. Kaveri valley in Tamil Nadu

· Following are the important sites of Paleolithic habitation:

1. Sohan: Adiyal, Balwaaland Chandal.

2. Punjab: Derda

3. Kashmir: Chauntara and Pahalgam

4. Rajasthan: Chittorgarh, Mysoregarh and Didwana

5. Gujarat: Medhamali and Visadi

6. Madhya Pradesh: Bhimbetka, Hathnala, Baghor and Maihar

7. Uttar Pradesh: Belan region, Mirzapur hills, Chakia Tahasil of Varanasi

8. Jharkhand: Hazaribagh

9. West Bengal: Bankura and Purulia

10. Odisha: Budha Valang, Mayurbhanj and Kyonjhar

11. Maharashtra: Naivasa, Bori, Inamgaon and Patne

12. Karnataka: Hungsi. This might have been an industrial site.

13. Andhra Pradesh: Kurnool, Nagarjunakonda, Renigunta, Machchhutavi Hill and Chintamanigaavi hill region

14. Tamil Nadu: Pallavaram, Attirampakkam, Budia Maim, Vanka and Gudiyan caves near Chennai. They exhibit a transition from lower to upper Paleolithic phases.

15. Only Kerala and the states of the northeast do not have any evidence of Paleolithic habitation in India. Assam has thrown some evidence but those are negligible.

16. Clearly, the Indian sub-continent has evidence of humans’ activities for over one lakh years.