Ashoka's Dhamma and his rock edicts: A recap

 

Maurya emperor Ashoka riding a chariot in a Sanchi Stupa relief (Photo: Twitter)

Ashokan policy of Dhamma has been a topic of lively discussion and the best source to know about his Dhamma is his edicts. The edicts were primarily written to explain to the people the principles of Dhamma. What comes out from his edicts is that the Dhamma was not any particular religious faith or practice. It was also not an arbitrarily formulated royal policy. Dhamma related to the norms of social behaviour and activities in a very general sense and in his Dhamma, Ashoka attempted a very careful synthesis of various norms which were current in his times.

The Dhamma had a historical background that served as a set of causes effecting in an official policy of one of the most powerful kings the world has seen.

SOCIOECONOMIC BACKGROUND

The Mauryan period witnessed a change in the economic structure of society largely due to the increasing use of iron. It has generally been argued that the use of the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) pottery is an indicator of material prosperity of the period.

The use of punch-marked coins of silver and some other varieties of coins, the conscious intervention of the state to safeguard trade routes and the rise of urban centres point to a structured change in the economy. It required necessary adjustments in society.

The commercial classes had also come to the forefront. The emergence of urban culture by its very logic demanded a more flexible social organisation.

The incorporation of tribes and peoples from the outlying areas into the social fabric also presented a problem. The rigidity of the Brahmanical class sharpened the division within society. The lower orders turned to various heterodox sects and this created social tensions.

It was this socioeconomic situation which emperor Ashoka inherited when he ascended the Mauryan throne.

RELIGIOUS BACKGROUND

The Brahmanical hold over society was increasingly coming under severe attack. The privileges of the priests, the rigidity of the caste system and elaborate rituals were being questioned. The lower orders among the four caste-classes began to favour new sects. The opposition to the Brahmanism by the commercial class was to give a fillip to the other sects of society.

On the other hand, Buddhism opposed the dominance of the Brahmanas and the concept of sacrifice and rituals. Buddhism had begun as a schismatic movement from the more orthodox Brahmanism. Its fundamentals were based on an emphasis on misery and advocacy of the middle path. It appealed to the lower orders and to the emerging social classes. The humane approach to relations in society preached by Buddhism further attracted different sections to Buddhism. Ashoka’s Dhamma bore deep influence of Buddhism.

POLITICAL BACKGROUND

By the time Ashoka ascended the throne, the state system of Mahajanapadas had grown very elaborate and complex from where it had started during the Mahajanapada era.

Now, there was political supremacy of one region (Magadha) over a vast territory which comprised many previous kingdoms, gana-sanghas and areas where no organised states had existed before.

Within this vast territory, there was existence of various geographical regions, cultural areas and different beliefs, faiths and practices.

There was monopoly of fore by a ruling class of which the emperor was the supreme head.

The state appropriated a very substantial quantity of surplus from agriculture, commerce and other sources.

A large administrative apparatus was developed for governing the people and territories.

The complexity of the state system demanded an imaginative policy from the emperor based on minimal use of force in such a large empire having diverse forms of economy and religions. It could not have been controlled by an army alone. A more feasible alternative was the propagation of a policy that would work at an ideological level and reach out to all sections of society.

The policy of Dhamma was such an endeavour. Obviously, the policy of Dhamma was an earnest attempt at solving some of the problems a complex society faced. However, it is also true that Ashoka’s personal beliefs and his own perception of how he should respond to the problems of his empire were responsible for the formulation of the policy of Dhamma.

CONTENTS OF DHAMMA

The principles of Dhamma were so formulated as to be acceptable to people belonging to different communities and following any religious sect. Dhamma was not given any formal definition or structure. It emphasised on toleration and general behaviour of people. Its emphasis in particular was on dual toleration – of people themselves and also their various beliefs and ideas.

There is stress on showing consideration towards slaves and servants, obedience to elders, and generosity towards the needy, Brahmanas and Shramanas. Ashoka prescribed tolerance of different religious sects in an attempt to create a sense of harmony.

The policy of Dhamma also laid emphasis on non-violence, which was to be pracised by giving up war and conquests, and also as a restraint on killing of animals. However, Ashoka was conscious that display of his political and military might up to a certain degree could be necessary to keep his empire intact and certain sections of people, especially some primitive forest tribes in check.

The policy of Dhamma included certain welfare measures such as planting of trees, digging up of wells etc. Ashoka denounced certain ceremonies and sacrifices practised regularly on various occasions as meaningless.

A group of officers known as the Dhamma Mahamattas were instituted to implement and publicise various aspects of Dhamma. Ashoka thrust a very special responsibility on them to carry his messages to various sections of society. However, they seem to have developed into a type of priesthood of Dhamma with great powers and soon began to interfere in politics as well.

DHAMMA AS PER MAJOR ROCK EDICTS

Major Rock Edict-I

It declared prohibition of animal sacrifice and holiday festive gatherings.

Major Rock Edict-II

It related to certain measures of social welfare which were included in the working of Dhamma. It mentioned medical treatment for men and animals, construction of roads, wells and planting of fruit-bearing trees and medicinal herbs.

Also talked about states outside the boundaries of Magadh empire: Pandyas, Satyapuras and Keralaputras of South India.

Major Rock Edict-III

It declared that liberality towards Brahmanans and Shramanas is a virtue. Respect to mother and father is a good quality to have. Empire officials Yuktas, Pradeshikas and Rajukas would go every five years to different parts of his empire to spread Dhamma.

Major Rock Edict-IV

Dhammaghosha (bugle of righteousness or Dhamma) over Bherighosha (bugle of war). It said that due to the policy of Dghamma, the lack of morality and disrespect towards Brahmanas and Shramanas, violence, unseemly behavior towards friends, relatives and others, and evils of this kind have been checked. The killing of animals to a large extent was also stopped.

Major Rock Edict-V

It referred to the appointment of Dhamma Mahamattas for the first time in the twelfth year of his reign. These special officers were by the emperor to look after the interests of all sects and religions and spread the message of Dhamma in each nook and cranny of the state. The implementation of the plicy of Dhamma was entrusted in their hands.

It talked about treating slaves right and humane.

Major Rock Edict-VI

It was an instruction to Dhamma Mahamattas. They were told that they could bring their reports to the emperor at any time, irrespective of whatever activity he may be engaged in. the second part of the edict dealt with speedy administration and smooth transaction of business.

Major Rock Edict-VII

It talked the necessity of tolerance towards different religions among all sects, and welfare measures being undertaken by the emperor/empire for the public not only within the Magadhan territories but in his neighbouring kingdoms as well.

Major Rock Edict-VIII

It talked about Dhammayatras saying that the emperor would undertake these tours instead of traditional hunting expedition to improve and deepen his contact with various sections of people of the empire.

It mentioned about Ashoka’s first visit to Bodh Gaya and Bodhi Tree, giving importance to Dhamma Yatra.

Major Rock Edict-IX

It attacked ceremonies performed at birth, illness, marriage and before setting out for a journey. A censure was passed against ceremonies observed by wives and mothers. Ashoka instead laid stress on the practice of Dhamma and usefulness of ceremonies.

Major Rock Edict-X

It denounced fame and glory, and reasserted the merit of following the policy of Dhamma.

Major Rock Edict-XI

It is a further explanation of Dhamma with emphasis on showing respect to elders, abstaining from killing animals, liberality towards friends and being humane towards slaves and servants.

Major Rock Edict-XII

Similar to MRE-VIII, it reflected the anxiety of Emperor Ashoka that he fled owing to conflict between competing sects and carried instructions for maintaining harmony.

It mentioned about Ithijika Mahamatta, the high-ranking official in charge of women’s welfare.

Major Rock Edict-XIII

It is of paramount importance in understanding the Ashokan policy of Dhamma. It prescribed conquests by Dhamma instead of war. This was a logical culmination of the thought process which began with the first MRE. This is Ashoka’s testament against war. It graphically depicted the tragedy of war.

This MRE was issued at the end of the Kalinga War bearing testimony to how Ashoka underwent a change in heart from an being aggressive and violent warrior to a preacher of peace and Dhamma.

It gave details of Magadha’s victory over Kalinga and mentioned Ashoka’s Dhamma Vijay over Greek kings Antiochus of Syria (Amtiyoko), Ptolemy of Egypt (Turamaye), Magas of Cyrene (Maka), Antigonus of Macedon (Amtikini), Alexander of Epirus (Alikasudaro). It also mentioned about Pandyas and Cholas in South India.

There is another MRE, the fourteenth. It entailed the purpose of rock edicts – to spread Dhamma and policies of the emperor.

PS: Ashoka put out his instructions through a series of edicts inscribed on rocks installed across his empire. These edicts are categorized by historians into five simpler groups:

-        Major Rock Edicts

-        Minor Rock Edicts

-        Separate Rock Edicts

-        Major Pillar Edicts

-        Minor Pillar Edicts

There are altogether 33 inscriptions that have been found in the edicts recovered/survived so far.

ASHOKA’S DHAMMA AND HIS STATE

Ashoka’s Dhamma was not simply a collection of lofty and feel-good phrases. He consciously adopted Dhamma as a matter of state policy.

It was a major departure from Arthashastra, the political treatise that formed the basis of kingship during Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the dynasty. In the Arthashastra, the king owed nothing to anyone. His only job was to rule the state efficiently.

But Ashoka’s Dhamma was a state policy. He declared that “all men are my children” and “whatever exertion I make, I strive only to discharge the debt that I owe to all living creatures”. It was totally a new and inspiring ideal of kingship.

Ashoka wanted to conquer the world through love and faith and hence he sent many missions to propagate Dhamma to even far flung places such as Egypt and Greece besides relatively nearby Sri Lanka.

The preparation of Dhamma included several measures for people’s welfare. Centres for medical treatment of men and animals/beasts were founded inside and outside the empire. Shady groves, wells fruit orchards and rest houses were laid out. This kind of charity work was a radically different attitude from the king of Arthashastra, who would not incur any expenses unless they brought more revenues in return.

Ashoka prohibited useless sacrifices and certain forms of gatherings which led to waste, and indiscipline and superstition. He recruited Dhamma Mahamattas for that purpose. They were to see to it that people of different sects were treated equally and fairly. Moreover, they were also asked to look after the welfare of prisoners. Many of the convicts who were kept in fetters after their sentence had expired were to be released. Those sentenced to death were to be given a grace for three days.

Ashoka launched Dhamma Yatra, righteous tours. He and his high-ranking officials were to tour the country in order to propagate Dhamma and establish direct contact with his subjects.

Ashoka renounced war and conquest by violence, and forbade killing of many animals. Ashoka himself set an example of vegetarianism by almost stopping consumption of meat in his royal household.

It was because of such attitudes and policies that modern writers like Kem called him “monk in a king’s garb”.

DHAMMA: INTERPRETATION

It has been suggested that it was the original Buddhist thought that was being preached by Ashoka as Dhamma, and later on, certain theological additions were made to Buddhism. This kind of thinking is based on Buddhist chronicles. But definitely, Ashoka did not favour Buddhism at the expense of other religious beliefs.

Ashoka’s creation of the institution of Dhamma Mahamatta indicates that Ashoka’s Dhamma was not to favour any particular religious doctrine. Had that been the case, there would not have been any need for such an official as Ashoka could have utilised the organisation of Sangha to propagate Dhamma.

Further, Ashoka wanted to promote tolerance and respect for all religious sects, and duty of the Dhamma Mahamattas included working for Brahmanas and Shramanas.

Some historians have suggested that Ashoka’s banning of sacrifices and the favour that he showed to Buddhists led to Brahmanical reaction, which, in turn, led to the decline of the Mauryan empire. Others believe that the stopping of wars and emphasis on non-violence crippled the military might of the empire. This led to the collapse of the empire, after the death of Ashoka.

However, Romila Thapar has shown that Ashoka’s Dhamma, apart from being a document of his humanness, was also an answer to the socio-political needs of the contemporary situation.

That it was not anti-Brahmanical is proven by the fact that respect for Brahmanas and Shramanas was an integral part of Ashoka’s Dhamma. His emphasis on non-violence did not blind him to the needs of the state. He warned the Atavikas (forest tribes) of using the military force of the empire if they did not mend their ways.

Ashoka’s ‘no to war’ policy came at a time when his empire had almost reached its natural boundaries. In the deep south, he had friendly ties with the Cholas and the Pandyas. Sri Lanka was an admiring ally. The policy of tolerance was a wise course of action in an ethnically diverse, religiously varied and class-divided society.

Ashoka’s empire was a conglomerate of diverse groups. There were farmers, pastoral nomads and hunter gatherers besides a burgeoning urban population. There were Greeks, Kamobjas and Bhojas, and hundreds of groups following divergent traditions.

In such a society and political composition, the policy of tolerance was the need of the hour. Ashoka tried to transcend the parochial cultural traditions by a broad set of ethical principles. It is, therefore, obvious that he was not establishing a new religion. He was simply trying to impress upon his society to guide along ethical and moral principles that suited his politics quite well.

Buddhism: Institution of Sangha

The Sangha was the religious order of the Buddhists. It was a well-organised and powerful institution, which popularised Buddhism. Membership was open to all persons irrespective of caste. There was age criterion for eligibility. The inductee must have completed the age of 15 at the time of becoming a member of the Buddhist Sangha. Interestingly, many millennia later, legislators thought 15 is the right age for giving consent.

Besides, the Buddhist Sangha would not accord membership to criminals unless reformed, lepers (controlling infection through medication was not known or common back then), slaves (their status in those times in India remains a subject of discussion among historians), persons suffering from an infectious disease, and an indebted person (who needed to pay off her debt before earning eligibility).

The Buddha was not initially inclined to admit women into the Sangha fearing that a gender-mix might make it difficult for the Sangha to maintain the requisite discipline. His chief disciple, Ananda, and foster mother, Mahaprajapati Gautami, argued for their entry into the Sangha.

The Buddha agreed but it is said in some stories that he warned Ananda that the decision would weaken the institution of the Sangha and cut short its life by 500 years which would have served society for a thousand years otherwise. The Sangha weakened over the following centuries particularly in the post-Ashoka era but picked up strength during the Kanishka times.

The members of the Sangha were monks and followed a bureaucratic hierarchy to manage the affairs of the institution. The monks had to ceremonially shave their head and wear yellow or saffron robes upon admission into the Sangha. 

Monks were expected to go on a daily round in order to preach Buddhism and seek alms to feed themselves. During the four months of rainy season, they stayed at one place, usually fixed, and meditated on the questions of the contemporary society and find answers from the tenets of Buddhism. This was called the retreat or Vasa.

The Sangha also promoted education among people. Unlike Brahmanism, people of different orders of society got access to education under the Buddhist Sangha. Naturally, the non-Brahmins got educated and the formal education reached wider sections of society, a departure from the history of past few centuries.

The Sangha was governed on democratic principles. It was empowered to enforce discipline among its members. There was a code of conduct for the monks and nuns. But differences were cropping up in the Sangha even during the time of the Buddha.

Paul Carus, the celebrated author of the “Gospel of Buddha”, says the Buddha, on the advice of Magadh king Bimbisar who was planning retirement, marked two days in every fortnight for community preaching by a monk ordained in Buddhism. He fixed the eighth and 14-15th day of every fortnight – a model Bimbisar had suggested on the lines of the practice of some Brahmanical sect of Rajgriha, his capital.

People started flocking to such community preaching events. But soon they complained that the monks who were supposed to elucidate Buddhism. A dispute arose. To settle the dispute, the Buddha provided for Pratimoksha (pardon by the Sangha after self-confession of indiscipline or violation of the Sangha rules by a monk). This was to be done on the same two days of the fortnight. This meeting and the process was called Uposatha and was to be held in public.

The monk who violated the Buddhist code had to confess upon being asked by the senior monk at the Uposatha. Others were to remain silent. The question was to be asked three times. If a violator remained silent three times, she/he would be considered guilty of perjury, which was an obstacle in attaining nirvana – freedom from the cycle of suffering.

At another place, Carus has shown that the Buddha walked out of a Sangha event as the rival monks would not listen to reason. After some time when his disciples insisted upon finding a solution, the Buddha addressed both the sides, first separately and then jointly. He had asked his disciples not to discriminate against one group or the other for their preference for one or abhorrence of the other. 

In the joint session, the Buddha told them the story of a Koshal king Deerghiti, his rival Kashi king Brahmadutta, and Deerghiti’s son Deerghayu who ended the bitterness between the two royal families. Here, the Buddha enunciated that hate could only be conquered by hatelessness – something that became popular after the Bible’s narration of ‘an eye for an eye will make the whole world blind’.

Thus, the members of Sangha – both monks and nuns – had to follow their respective codes of conduct. They were bound to obey the code if they were to stay within the Sangha. The Sangha had the power to punish any of the erring members.

Buddhism: Teachings of the Buddha

 

The basic teachings of the Buddha are contained in:

-        Four Satyas (noble truths)

-        Eight paths (Ashtangika Marga)

The four noble truths are:

1.    The world is full of sufferings.

2.    All sufferings have a cause. Desire, ignorance and attachment are the causes of these sufferings.

3.    A suffering could be removed by destroying its cause.

4.    One must know the right path to end the sufferings. This path is eight-fold or the Ashtangika Marg.

The eight-fold path is enunciated as follows:

1.    Right View/Observation: Finding the right view through observation is the first of the paths. This is required to understand that the world is filled with sorrow emerging from desires. Ending the desire will lead to liberation of the self.

2.    Right Aim/Determination: It refers to having the determination for the right aim, which is to seek to avoid enjoyment of the senses and luxury. It aims to love the humanity and augment the happiness of others.

3.    Right Speech: It emphasises the endeavour to speak truth always.

4.    Right Action: This is interpreted as unselfish deeds or action.

5.    Right Livelihood: This path instructs a follower to live his or her life by honest means. This does not take an extreme position. For example, it allows profit-making by business people but without subjecting somebody to sufferings.

6.    Right Exercise: This means making the right efforts, interpreted as the proper way to control one’s senses so as to prevent bad or detrimental thoughts. It elucidates that one can destroy desires and attachments through right mental exercises.

7.    Right Memory/Mindfulness: It recognises that there are evil worldly affairs which trigger desires and attachments. This path calls for understanding the idea that the body is impermanent, and that meditation is the means for removal of the worldly evils.

8.    Right Meditation/Concentration: Observation of the right meditation will lead to inner peace. The right meditation will unravel the real truth.

Buddhism puts great emphasis on the law of karma (action). This means that the present is determined by one’s past actions. Everyone is the maker of one’s own destiny. The condition of a person in this life or the next life depends on one’s own actions. Humans are born again and again to reap the fruits of their karma. If an individual has no sins or desires, she or he is not born again.

The doctrine of karma is an essential part of the Buddhist tenet. The Buddha preached nirvana, described as the ultimate goal of a human life. One can attain nirvana by the process of elimination of desires. The Buddha laid emphasis the moral life of an individual to complete this process.

Buddhism is what could be termed a secular religion for the Buddha neither accepted nor rejected the existence of god. He did not consider the god question as significant enough to discuss. He was more concerned about the individual and one’s action than deliberating the question of god. The Buddha did not believe in the existence of soul either. It is unique in being a soul-less religion. This means there is no heaven in Buddhism.

The Buddha emphasised on the spirit of love, which he said could be harboured for all living beings by following the path of ahimsa, non-violence. The principle of ahimsa was underscored and emphasised in Buddhism but not as much as in Jainism. The Buddha prescribed that an individual should pursue the middle-path shunning the extremes of severe asceticism and luxurious life.

The teachings of the Buddha posed a serious challenge to the existing Brahmanical ideas in the following ways:

1.    The Buddha’s liberal and democratic approach towards life quickly attracted people from all sections of society. His disregard for the caste system and the supremacy of the Brahmins through the law of karma was welcomed by the people who were given lower social strata in the pecking order. People were admitted to the Buddhist order without the consideration of caste and, later, gender.

2.    Salvation of an individual, Buddhism declared, depended on one’s good deeds not the birth in a particular community. This meant that there was no need for a priest or spiritual middle-man to achieve nirvana.

3.    The Buddha also rejected the supreme authority of the Vedas by condemning the practice of animal sacrifice. The Buddha said neither a sacrifice to gods could wash away a sin nor could any prayer of any priest do any good to a sinner.

With these influences, Buddhism in a very short period emerged as an organised religion and the Buddha’s teachings were codified forming the Buddhist cannon, the collection of his teachings. The Buddhist cannon can be divided into three sections:

1.    Sutta Pitaka: It consists of five Nikayas (bodies) of religious discourses and sayings of the Buddha. The fifth of the Nikayas contains the Jatakakathas (the tales of the births).

2.    Vinaya Pitaka: It contains the rules for monastic discipline.

3.    Abhidhamma Pitaka: It contains the philosophical ideas of the teachings of the Buddha. It is written in the form of questions and answers.

Gautam Buddha: An Introduction

Photo taken on Aug 10, 2015 shows Buddha statues in one of the caves of the Yungang Grottoes, a 1,500-year-old Buddhist site in North China's Shanxi province. Listed as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2001, the Yungang Grottoes contain more than 51,000 statues of the Buddha. (Photo: Twitter/

@zhang_heqing

)

His name was Siddhartha, also known as Gautam, and he was a contemporary of Vardhaman Mahavira. There is confusion about the exact date of his birth but historians seem to consider 563 BC as his year of birth. He was born at Kapilavastu in the Himalayan foothills of Nepal as his mother was on her way to parents’ home from her in-laws’ place in Vaishali, an emerging political seat of power in the sixth century BC North Bihar. He was born in the ruling Shakya family.

Siddhartha attained ‘knowledge’ (Bodhi, a derivate of Sanskrit word, Buddhi meaning logic-based intelligence) at Bodh Gaya in South Bihar under a peepal tree. After attaining knowledge, Siddhartha delivered his first sermon at Sarnath in Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh. His first preaching is known as Dharma-chakra-parivartan (literally meaning a change in the cycle of dharma, which is difficult to translate into English) in Buddhism, the philosophy founded by Siddhartha. He was afterwards called Buddha or Lord Buddha.

He preached for forty years and passed away at Kushinagar in Uttar Pradesh at the age of 80 in 483 BC.

He condemned the caste system as false and wrong.

He enunciated four truths that form the basis of Buddhism. These are:

1. Suffering (dukha) exists wherever there is life.
2. Desire is the cause of suffering leading to endless rebirths. The desire for things, existence, experience, immortality, sensual pleasure, worldly possession and power are the causes of suffering.
3. Freedom from suffering is possible. It can be achieved by abandoning desire, dumping one’s individuality and giving up the lust for worldly possessions.
4. There is a way to get rid of this cycle of suffering and rebirths. This is called the eight-fold way. It is alternatively called the middle path in Buddhism. It advocates negation of extremes, for example, the attachment to passion and worldly pleasure on one hand, and the practice of self-mortification and asceticism on the other.

The guiding principles for this liberation are enunciated in what is called the eight-fold path, the Ashtanga Marg. It leads to wisdom, calmness, knowledge, enlightenment and liberation. The eight principles are:

1. Right View
2. Right Aspiration
3. Right Speech
4. Right Conduct
5. Right Livelihood
6. Right Effort
7. Right Mindfulness
8. Right Meditation

These eight principles are grouped under three categories:

1. Prajna Skandh: Right View, Right Aspiration 
2. Sheel Skandh: Right Speech, Right Conduct, Right Livelihood
3. Samadhi Skandh: Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, Right Meditation

A devoted follower of the eight-fold path attains salvation or nirvana. The attainment of nirvana is the chief objective of Buddhism.

Buddhism (and also Jainism) is non-theistic in nature. The existence of God is irrelevant to the Buddhist doctrine. Buddhism believes that God is not the creator of the universe because if he is the creator, he would have to be responsible for the miseries of the world.

Buddha laid emphasis on self-effort or self-sufficiency. That is, “one who looks onto oneself”. In Buddhism, nothing is left for divine intervention.

Buddha also believed that a soul does not exist (after death), and that there is no transmigration of the soul. That soul dies with the death of the person. What is called soul is, in reality, a physical or mental aggregate of five impermanent conditions. These are:

1. Form (the body)
2. Feelings
3. Idea or understanding
4. Will
5. Pure consciousness

The human personality or soul is said to be bound within a process which Buddha called the Wheel of Existence or the Existence Wheel. We keep the wheel revolving through ignorance and indulge in actions that create karma. This karma leads to rebirth and successive existences, all beings inseparably bound with misery.

The question that arises is if the soul dies with he man, how does karma of a man lead to rebirth?

Milinda Panha has explained this aspect of Buddhist philosophy in terms of a wave which rises in water, gives birth to another and then disappears itself. Karma through consciousness becomes the cause for rebirth.

Like Mahavira, Buddha too laid down several sheelas (rules of conduct) for his followers. In general, sheelas prohibit destruction of life and causing of pain or injury to any living being. Ahimsa is fundamental to Buddhism.

Stealing, falsehood, use of intoxicants, coveting the property of others, telling lies and indulging in corrupt practices are prohibited.

Some sheelas prohibit magic, prophesy, astrology, religious rituals or worship in any form.

In society, Buddhism took the form of the Sangha, a Buddhist order of monks and laymen.

Sometimes after his death, a credo was formalised for the Buddhis discipline: Keep my faith in Buddha, Dharma and the Sangha. This Buddhist credo is referred to as the Tri-ratna, three jewels.

Buddha started viharas (monasteries), which were places where monks lived and spent their lives praying and preaching Buddhism. The viharas were also used as schools open to people of all strata of society. Some of the more famous were at Nalanda, Vikramshila (in Bihar) and Vallabhi (in Gujarat).

After Buddha, Ashvaghosh and Nagarjuna were great teachers of Buddhism and played significant role in the spread of Buddhism.

After the death of Buddha, four general councils of the Buddhist church (Sangha) were held.

1. First great Sangha was held at Rajagriha in 483 BC, soon after the death of Buddha. The discourses of Buddha were collected, compiled and embodied in the Pali canon. This literature is known as Tri-Pitaka after the conclusion of the third great Sangha, where the third Pitak was compiled.
• Vinaya Pitaka: This deals with the rules of the Buddhist order. It was versed by Buddha’s favourite disciple, Ananda.
• Sutta Pitaka: This is a collection of Buddha’s sermons. It was versed by Buddha’s another great disciple, Upali. The famous Jatakas (or the Jataka Kathas), dealing with the stories from previous births of Buddha, are contained in the Sutta Pitaka. They give us a graphic description of the contemporary society, and make clear references to various regions and geographic divisions.
• Abhidhamma Pitaka: It was compiled at the third great Sangha, held at Patliputra. It is a treatise on metaphysics. It tells us about the preachers, princes, rich, poor, towns and villages of the period. It was versed by Mogaliput Tissa.
2. Second general council was held at Vaishali in 383 BC, a hundred years after the death of Buddha. It was at this convention that sharp divisions within the Buddhist order crept up – the Theravadi (Mayakachchayan) verus Mahasanghika (Mahakassapa) debate began at this Sangha. Interestingly, the bhikshukas (monks) of Vaishali boycotted this assembly, held in their own city.
3. Third general council was held at Patliputra in 250 BC, during the reign of Maurya emperor Ashoka. It was at this session, it was decided to send missionaries to various parts of the Indian subcontinent and beyond, and to make Buddhism an actively proselytising religion.
4. Fourth general council was held in Kashmir in the first century AD. Here, the schism in Buddhism was recognised officially. One branch was called Hinayana or the followers of the lesser vehicle, and the other, Mahayana or the followers of the greater vehicle.

Eventually, Hinayana Buddhism found its stronghold din Ceylon (Sri Lanaka), Burma (Myanmar) and the countries of South-East Asia. Mahayana Buddhism became the dominant sect in India, Central Asia, Tibet, China and Japan.

In Mahayana Buddhism, the belief in deification of Buddha, and image or idol worship (first century AD onwards) with its usual accompaniments, elaborate rituals, religious formulae, charms etc replaced the simpler tenets to place a follower’s faith in Buddha.

It also believed in Bodhisattava, the previous incarnations of Buddha, as essential part of the sect to attain salvation. It adopted Sanskrit as the language for its religious literature, and a new canon developed in as a result.

Hinayana Buddhism, however, continued to practice self-culture and believe that good deeds led to salvation.

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The Age of Three Empires: Palas, Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas

 

Kailash Temple, Aurangabad, Maharashtra: Carved from one piece of rock, estimated to have weighed over 4 lakh tonnes, during the reign of Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (Photo: Twitter/@ancient_bharat)

Kailash Temple, Aurangabad, Maharashtra: Carved from one piece of rock, estimated to have weighed over 4,00,000 tonnes during the reign of Rashtrakuta king Krishna I. (Photo: Twitter/@ancient_bharat)

Three powerful kingdoms arose in India between 750 and 1000. These were the Pala kingdom, the Pratihara kingdom and the Rashtrakuta kingdom. Each of these kingdoms, although they fought among themselves, provided stable conditions of life over large areas and gave patronage to arts and letters. Of the three, the Rashtrakuta empire/kingdom lasted the longest. It was not only the most powerful empire of the time but also acted as a bridge between the North and the South India in economic as well as cultural matters.

STRUGGLE FOR DOMINATION

Since the days of Harsha, Kannauj was considered the symbol of sovereignty of North India. Control over Kannauj also implied control of the upper Gangetic valley and its rich resources in trade and agriculture. The Palas and the Pratiharas clashed with each other for the control of area extending from Benaras to Jharkhand which again had rich natural resources, and well-developed traditions. The Pratiharas clashed with the Rashtrakutas too.

THE PALAS

The Pala empire/kingdom was founded by Gopala, in or around 750, when he was elected by the notable men of the area to end anarchy prevailing there. He was succeeded by Dharmapala. In spite of having been defeated by Dhruva Rashtrakuta, Dharmapala occupied Kannauj and held a grand durbar there. It was attended by vassal rulers from Punjab, eastern Rajasthan etc. However, Dharmapala could not consolidate his control over Kannauj. Nagabhatta II Pratihara defeated him near Mongyr (now, Munger).

Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh remained a bone of contention between the Palas and the Pratiharas. Bihar and Bengal remained, however, under the control of the Palas for most of the period of their rule.

Failure in the north compelled the Pala rulers to turn their energies in other directions. Devapala (810-850), the successor of Dharmapla, extended his control over Pragjyotishpur (Assam) and parts of Odisha. A part of Nepal probably also came under the Pala suzerainty.

Thus, for about a hundred years, the Palas dominated eastern India. Their power is attested by Arab merchant Sulaiman. He calls the Pala kingdom Ruhma and testifies that the ruler maintained a large army.

The Tibetan chronicles also provide some information about the Palas. The Pala rulers were great patrons of Buddhist learnings and religion. Dharmapala revived the famous university of Nalanda. He set apart 200 revenue villages for meeting the expenses of the university. Dharmapala also founded the Vikramshila university, which stood second only to the Nalanda university in fame. 

The Palas built many viharas in which a large number of Buddhist monks lived. The Pala rulers had a very close cultural relation with Tibet. The noted Buddhist scholars, Shantarakshita and Dipankara (also called Atisa) were invited to Tibet. They introduced a new form of Buddhism there. As a result, many Tibetan Buddhists flocked to the universities of Nalanda and Vikramshila for education.

The Palas had close trade contacts with South East Asia. Trade with South East Asia was very profitable adding immensely to prosperity of the Pala rulers and empire. The powerful Shailendra dynasty of South East Asia sent an embassy to the Pala court and sought permission to build a monastery at Nalanda and also requested the Pala ruler Devapala to endow five villages for its upkeep. The request was granted. It bears the testimony to a close relationship between the two empires/countries in the early medieval times.

THE PRATIHARAS

The Pratiharas are also called the Gurjar-Pratiharas. They are said to have originated from Gujarat or South West Rajasthan. They were at first possibly local officials but later able to carve out a series of principalities in central and eastern Rajasthan. They gained prominence on account of their resistance to Arab incursions from Sindh into Rajasthan. The efforts of the early Pratiharas to extend their control over the upper Gangetic valley and Malwa region were foiled by the Rashtrakuta rulers Dhruva and Gopal III.

The real founder of the Pratihara empire was Bhoja, who was also the greatest ruler from the dynasty. Re rebuilt the empire and recovered Kannauj around 836. Kannauj remained the capital of the empire for almost a century. The name of Bhoja is famous in many legends. Bhoja was a devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title of Adivaraha, which has been found inscribed in some of his coins.

Mihir Bhoja was succeeded by Mahendrapala I, probably in 885. Mahendrapala I maintained the empire of Bhoja till 908-09 and extended it over Magadha and North Bengal. Mahendrapala I fought a battle with the king of Kashmir but had to yield to him some of his territories in Punjab won by Bhoja.

The Pratiharas, thus, dominated North India for over a hundred years — middle of the 9th century to the middle of the 10th century. The Arab travellers tell us that the Pratiharas had the best cavalry in India, having horses imported from Central Asia. Al Masudi, who visited Gujarat in 915-16, testifies about the great power and prestige, and vastness of the Pratihara emepire. He calls the Gurjara-Pratihara kingdom Al Juzr, and identifies Baura (possibly out of confusion for Bhoja, who had died by that time) as its king.

The Pratiharas were patrons of learning and literature. The great Sanskrit poet and dramatist Rajashekhar lived at the court of Mahipala, a grandson of Bhoja. The Pratiharas also embellished Kannauj with many fine buildings and temples.

Between 915 and 918, Indra III Rashtrakuta attacked Kannauj and devastated the city. This weakened the Pratihara empire, and possibly also resulted in Gujarat being passed to the hands of the Rashtrakutas. Al Masudi tells us that the Pratihara empire had no access to the sea. The loss of Gujarat was a major blow to the Pratiharas.

Again in 963, Krishna II Rashtrakuta invaded North India and defeated the Pratihara army. This was followed by rapid dissolution of the Pratihara empire.

THE RASHTRAKUTAS

The dynasty of the Rashtrakutas produced a long line of warriors and able administration. The kingdom was founded by Dantidurg, who set up his capital at Manyakhet. The Rashtrakutas kept fighting with the Pratiharas, the Palas, the Chalukyas of Vengi, the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Pandyas of Madurai.

Probably, the greatest rulers of the Rashtrakutas were Govind-III and Amoghvarsha. Govind-III defeated the Kerala, the Pandyas, the Chola, the Pallava and the western Ganga kings.

The king of Lanka and his minister were brought to Halapur. Two statues of the lord of Sri Lana were carried to Manyakhet and installed like pillars of victory in front of a Shiva temple.

Amoghvarsha preferred the pursuit of religion and literature to war. He was himself an author and credited with writing the first Kannada book on poetics. He was a great builder. He is said to have built the capital city of Manyakhet to surpass the glory of the city of Lord Indra. However, there were many rebellions in the far flung parts of the kingdom during Amoghvarsha’s reign. These could barely be contained, and began afresh after his death.

Indira-III re-established the empire. Indra-III was the most powerful king of his times. Al-Masudi has mentioned about a Rashtrakuta king with name, Balhara or Vallabharaja as the greatest king of India.

Krishna-III was the last in the line of brilliant rulers from Rashtrakuta lineage. He pressed down to Rameshwaram where he set up a pillar of victory. But after his death, al his opponents united against his successor. In 972, the Rashtrakuta capital Malkhed was sacked and burnt. This marked the end of the Rashtrakuta rule.

The Rashtrakuta rulers were tolerant in their religious views and patronised not only Shaivism and Vaishnavism but also Jainism. The famous rock-cut temple of Shiva at Ellora was built by Krishna-I in the ninth century.

The Rashtrakutas allowed Muslim traders to settle, and permitted Islam to be preached in their dominions. Muslims had their own headmen and held their daily prayers in large mosques in many of the coastal towns in the Rashtrakuta empire. This tolerant policy helped to promote foreign trade which enriched the Rashtrakutas.

The Rashtrakuta kings were great patrons of art and letter. Their court poets wrote in Sanskrit, Prakrit and Apabhramsa. The great Apabhramsa poet, Swayambhu probably lived in the Rashtrakuta court.

POLITICAL IDEAS AND ORGANISATION

The system of administration in the three empires was based on the idea and practices of the Gupta empire, Harsha’s kingdom and the Chalukyan kingdom.

Monarch was the head of all affairs. He was the head of the administration and the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The infantry and cavalry stationed in his courtyard. Captured war-elephants were paraded in front of him. He was attended by royal chamberlains, who regulated the visits of the vassal chiefs, feudatories, ambassadors and other high officials. The king also dispensed justice. Dancing girls and skilled musicians also attended the court. Ladies of the king’s household also attended the court on festive occasions.

The king’s position was hereditary. Thinkers of the time emphasised absolute loyalty and obedience to the kings because of the insecurities of the time. However, a contemporary writer, Medhatithi thought that it was the right of an individual to bear arms in order to defend oneself against thieves and assassins. He also said that it was right to oppose an unjust king.

The rules of succession were not rigidly fixed. Thus, Dhruva and Govinda-IV deposed their elder brothers. Sometimes, rulers designated the eldest son or another favourite son as Yuvraj. In that case, Yuvraj stayed at the capital and helped the king in the task of administration. Younger sons were sometimes appointed as the provincial governors. Princesses were rarely appointed to government posts but there is an instance where a Rashtrakuta princess named Chandrobalabbe, a daughter of Amoghvarsha, administered the Raichur doab region for some time.

Kings were generally advised by a number of ministers, who were chosen by the king usually from leading families. Their position was often hereditary. During the Pala dynasty’s reign, a Brahmana family supplied four successive chief ministers to Dharamapala and successors.

From epigraphic and literary records, it appears that in almost every kingdom, there was a minister, treasurer, chief (senapati) of the armed forces, chief justice and purohita.

More than one post was combined in one person. All ministers except Purohita were expected to lead military campaigns where called upon to do so. There were also officials of the royal household, Antahpur.

Arab travellers tell us that the three kingdoms maintained highly efficient military wings. Elephants were supposed to be the elements of strength and were greatly prized. The largest number of elephants was maintained by the Pala kings.

A large number of horses were imported by Rashtrakuta and Pratihara kings by sea from Arabia and West Asia, and by land from Central Asia. The Pratihara kings are believed to have had the finest cavalry in the country. There are no references to war chariots which had fallen out of use.

Some of the kings, especially the Rashtrakutas had a large number of forts. The infantry consisted of regular and irregular troops and units provided by vassal chiefs as levies.

The regular troops were often hereditary and sometimes drawn from all over India. Thus, the Pala infantry consisted of soldiers from Malwa, Khasa (Assam), Lata (South Gujarat) and Karnataka. The Pala kings and perhaps the Rashtrakutas had their own navies.

The empires consisted of areas administered directly and regions ruled by vassal chiefs. The latter were autonomous as far as their internal affairs were concerned and had a general obligation of loyalty, paying a fixed tribute and supplying a quota of troops to the overlord. The vassal chiefs were required to attend the court of the overlord on special occasions and sometimes, they were required to marry one of their daughters to the overlord to one of his sons.

But the vassal chiefs always aspired to become independent, and wars were frequently fought between them and the overlord. Thus, the Rashtrakuta had to fight constantly against the vassal chiefs of Vengi (Andhra) and Karnataka. The Pratihars had to fight against the Paramaras of Malwa and the Chandellas of Bundelkhand.

The directly administered areas in the Pala and the Pratihara empires were divided into Bhuktis, and Mandalas or Vishayas. The governor of a province was called Uparika, and the head of a district Vishayapati.

The Uparika was expected to collect land revenue and maintain law-and-order with the help of the army. The Vishayapati was also expected to do the same within his jurisdiction.

During this period, there was an increase of smaller chieftains called Samantas or Bhogapatis who dominated over a number of villages. The Vishyapatis and these smaller chiefs tended to merge with each other and later on, the word Samanta began to be used indiscriminately for both of them.

In the Rashtrakuta kingdom, the directly administered areas were divided into Rashtra (provinces), Vishayas and Bhuktis. The head of a Rashtra was called the rashtrapati, and he performed the same functions as the Uparika. The head of a Vishaya here was called Pattala.

Below these territorial units was a village, which was the basic unit of administration. The village administration was carried on by the village headman and the village accountant whose posts were generally hereditary. They were paid by grants of rent-free lands.

The headman was often helped in his duties by the village elder called Grama-Mahajana or Grama-Mahamattara. In the Rashtrakuta kingdom particularly in Karnataka, there were village committees to manage local schools, tanks/ponds, temples and roads. They could also receive money or property in trust and manage them.

These committees worked in close cooperation with the village headmen and received a percentage of the revenue collection. Simple disputes were also decided by these committees.

Towns also had similar committees to which the heads of the guilds wee also associated. Law-and-order in the towns and in their immediate locality was the responsibility f the Koshta-pala in the towns.

(Source: History books and notes from CSE preparation days)