The Age of Three Empires: Palas, Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas

 

Kailash Temple, Aurangabad, Maharashtra: Carved from one piece of rock, estimated to have weighed over 4 lakh tonnes, during the reign of Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (Photo: Twitter/@ancient_bharat)

Kailash Temple, Aurangabad, Maharashtra: Carved from one piece of rock, estimated to have weighed over 4,00,000 tonnes during the reign of Rashtrakuta king Krishna I. (Photo: Twitter/@ancient_bharat)

Three powerful kingdoms arose in India between 750 and 1000. These were the Pala kingdom, the Pratihara kingdom and the Rashtrakuta kingdom. Each of these kingdoms, although they fought among themselves, provided stable conditions of life over large areas and gave patronage to arts and letters. Of the three, the Rashtrakuta empire/kingdom lasted the longest. It was not only the most powerful empire of the time but also acted as a bridge between the North and the South India in economic as well as cultural matters.

STRUGGLE FOR DOMINATION

Since the days of Harsha, Kannauj was considered the symbol of sovereignty of North India. Control over Kannauj also implied control of the upper Gangetic valley and its rich resources in trade and agriculture. The Palas and the Pratiharas clashed with each other for the control of area extending from Benaras to Jharkhand which again had rich natural resources, and well-developed traditions. The Pratiharas clashed with the Rashtrakutas too.

THE PALAS

The Pala empire/kingdom was founded by Gopala, in or around 750, when he was elected by the notable men of the area to end anarchy prevailing there. He was succeeded by Dharmapala. In spite of having been defeated by Dhruva Rashtrakuta, Dharmapala occupied Kannauj and held a grand durbar there. It was attended by vassal rulers from Punjab, eastern Rajasthan etc. However, Dharmapala could not consolidate his control over Kannauj. Nagabhatta II Pratihara defeated him near Mongyr (now, Munger).

Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh remained a bone of contention between the Palas and the Pratiharas. Bihar and Bengal remained, however, under the control of the Palas for most of the period of their rule.

Failure in the north compelled the Pala rulers to turn their energies in other directions. Devapala (810-850), the successor of Dharmapla, extended his control over Pragjyotishpur (Assam) and parts of Odisha. A part of Nepal probably also came under the Pala suzerainty.

Thus, for about a hundred years, the Palas dominated eastern India. Their power is attested by Arab merchant Sulaiman. He calls the Pala kingdom Ruhma and testifies that the ruler maintained a large army.

The Tibetan chronicles also provide some information about the Palas. The Pala rulers were great patrons of Buddhist learnings and religion. Dharmapala revived the famous university of Nalanda. He set apart 200 revenue villages for meeting the expenses of the university. Dharmapala also founded the Vikramshila university, which stood second only to the Nalanda university in fame. 

The Palas built many viharas in which a large number of Buddhist monks lived. The Pala rulers had a very close cultural relation with Tibet. The noted Buddhist scholars, Shantarakshita and Dipankara (also called Atisa) were invited to Tibet. They introduced a new form of Buddhism there. As a result, many Tibetan Buddhists flocked to the universities of Nalanda and Vikramshila for education.

The Palas had close trade contacts with South East Asia. Trade with South East Asia was very profitable adding immensely to prosperity of the Pala rulers and empire. The powerful Shailendra dynasty of South East Asia sent an embassy to the Pala court and sought permission to build a monastery at Nalanda and also requested the Pala ruler Devapala to endow five villages for its upkeep. The request was granted. It bears the testimony to a close relationship between the two empires/countries in the early medieval times.

THE PRATIHARAS

The Pratiharas are also called the Gurjar-Pratiharas. They are said to have originated from Gujarat or South West Rajasthan. They were at first possibly local officials but later able to carve out a series of principalities in central and eastern Rajasthan. They gained prominence on account of their resistance to Arab incursions from Sindh into Rajasthan. The efforts of the early Pratiharas to extend their control over the upper Gangetic valley and Malwa region were foiled by the Rashtrakuta rulers Dhruva and Gopal III.

The real founder of the Pratihara empire was Bhoja, who was also the greatest ruler from the dynasty. Re rebuilt the empire and recovered Kannauj around 836. Kannauj remained the capital of the empire for almost a century. The name of Bhoja is famous in many legends. Bhoja was a devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title of Adivaraha, which has been found inscribed in some of his coins.

Mihir Bhoja was succeeded by Mahendrapala I, probably in 885. Mahendrapala I maintained the empire of Bhoja till 908-09 and extended it over Magadha and North Bengal. Mahendrapala I fought a battle with the king of Kashmir but had to yield to him some of his territories in Punjab won by Bhoja.

The Pratiharas, thus, dominated North India for over a hundred years — middle of the 9th century to the middle of the 10th century. The Arab travellers tell us that the Pratiharas had the best cavalry in India, having horses imported from Central Asia. Al Masudi, who visited Gujarat in 915-16, testifies about the great power and prestige, and vastness of the Pratihara emepire. He calls the Gurjara-Pratihara kingdom Al Juzr, and identifies Baura (possibly out of confusion for Bhoja, who had died by that time) as its king.

The Pratiharas were patrons of learning and literature. The great Sanskrit poet and dramatist Rajashekhar lived at the court of Mahipala, a grandson of Bhoja. The Pratiharas also embellished Kannauj with many fine buildings and temples.

Between 915 and 918, Indra III Rashtrakuta attacked Kannauj and devastated the city. This weakened the Pratihara empire, and possibly also resulted in Gujarat being passed to the hands of the Rashtrakutas. Al Masudi tells us that the Pratihara empire had no access to the sea. The loss of Gujarat was a major blow to the Pratiharas.

Again in 963, Krishna II Rashtrakuta invaded North India and defeated the Pratihara army. This was followed by rapid dissolution of the Pratihara empire.

THE RASHTRAKUTAS

The dynasty of the Rashtrakutas produced a long line of warriors and able administration. The kingdom was founded by Dantidurg, who set up his capital at Manyakhet. The Rashtrakutas kept fighting with the Pratiharas, the Palas, the Chalukyas of Vengi, the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Pandyas of Madurai.

Probably, the greatest rulers of the Rashtrakutas were Govind-III and Amoghvarsha. Govind-III defeated the Kerala, the Pandyas, the Chola, the Pallava and the western Ganga kings.

The king of Lanka and his minister were brought to Halapur. Two statues of the lord of Sri Lana were carried to Manyakhet and installed like pillars of victory in front of a Shiva temple.

Amoghvarsha preferred the pursuit of religion and literature to war. He was himself an author and credited with writing the first Kannada book on poetics. He was a great builder. He is said to have built the capital city of Manyakhet to surpass the glory of the city of Lord Indra. However, there were many rebellions in the far flung parts of the kingdom during Amoghvarsha’s reign. These could barely be contained, and began afresh after his death.

Indira-III re-established the empire. Indra-III was the most powerful king of his times. Al-Masudi has mentioned about a Rashtrakuta king with name, Balhara or Vallabharaja as the greatest king of India.

Krishna-III was the last in the line of brilliant rulers from Rashtrakuta lineage. He pressed down to Rameshwaram where he set up a pillar of victory. But after his death, al his opponents united against his successor. In 972, the Rashtrakuta capital Malkhed was sacked and burnt. This marked the end of the Rashtrakuta rule.

The Rashtrakuta rulers were tolerant in their religious views and patronised not only Shaivism and Vaishnavism but also Jainism. The famous rock-cut temple of Shiva at Ellora was built by Krishna-I in the ninth century.

The Rashtrakutas allowed Muslim traders to settle, and permitted Islam to be preached in their dominions. Muslims had their own headmen and held their daily prayers in large mosques in many of the coastal towns in the Rashtrakuta empire. This tolerant policy helped to promote foreign trade which enriched the Rashtrakutas.

The Rashtrakuta kings were great patrons of art and letter. Their court poets wrote in Sanskrit, Prakrit and Apabhramsa. The great Apabhramsa poet, Swayambhu probably lived in the Rashtrakuta court.

POLITICAL IDEAS AND ORGANISATION

The system of administration in the three empires was based on the idea and practices of the Gupta empire, Harsha’s kingdom and the Chalukyan kingdom.

Monarch was the head of all affairs. He was the head of the administration and the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The infantry and cavalry stationed in his courtyard. Captured war-elephants were paraded in front of him. He was attended by royal chamberlains, who regulated the visits of the vassal chiefs, feudatories, ambassadors and other high officials. The king also dispensed justice. Dancing girls and skilled musicians also attended the court. Ladies of the king’s household also attended the court on festive occasions.

The king’s position was hereditary. Thinkers of the time emphasised absolute loyalty and obedience to the kings because of the insecurities of the time. However, a contemporary writer, Medhatithi thought that it was the right of an individual to bear arms in order to defend oneself against thieves and assassins. He also said that it was right to oppose an unjust king.

The rules of succession were not rigidly fixed. Thus, Dhruva and Govinda-IV deposed their elder brothers. Sometimes, rulers designated the eldest son or another favourite son as Yuvraj. In that case, Yuvraj stayed at the capital and helped the king in the task of administration. Younger sons were sometimes appointed as the provincial governors. Princesses were rarely appointed to government posts but there is an instance where a Rashtrakuta princess named Chandrobalabbe, a daughter of Amoghvarsha, administered the Raichur doab region for some time.

Kings were generally advised by a number of ministers, who were chosen by the king usually from leading families. Their position was often hereditary. During the Pala dynasty’s reign, a Brahmana family supplied four successive chief ministers to Dharamapala and successors.

From epigraphic and literary records, it appears that in almost every kingdom, there was a minister, treasurer, chief (senapati) of the armed forces, chief justice and purohita.

More than one post was combined in one person. All ministers except Purohita were expected to lead military campaigns where called upon to do so. There were also officials of the royal household, Antahpur.

Arab travellers tell us that the three kingdoms maintained highly efficient military wings. Elephants were supposed to be the elements of strength and were greatly prized. The largest number of elephants was maintained by the Pala kings.

A large number of horses were imported by Rashtrakuta and Pratihara kings by sea from Arabia and West Asia, and by land from Central Asia. The Pratihara kings are believed to have had the finest cavalry in the country. There are no references to war chariots which had fallen out of use.

Some of the kings, especially the Rashtrakutas had a large number of forts. The infantry consisted of regular and irregular troops and units provided by vassal chiefs as levies.

The regular troops were often hereditary and sometimes drawn from all over India. Thus, the Pala infantry consisted of soldiers from Malwa, Khasa (Assam), Lata (South Gujarat) and Karnataka. The Pala kings and perhaps the Rashtrakutas had their own navies.

The empires consisted of areas administered directly and regions ruled by vassal chiefs. The latter were autonomous as far as their internal affairs were concerned and had a general obligation of loyalty, paying a fixed tribute and supplying a quota of troops to the overlord. The vassal chiefs were required to attend the court of the overlord on special occasions and sometimes, they were required to marry one of their daughters to the overlord to one of his sons.

But the vassal chiefs always aspired to become independent, and wars were frequently fought between them and the overlord. Thus, the Rashtrakuta had to fight constantly against the vassal chiefs of Vengi (Andhra) and Karnataka. The Pratihars had to fight against the Paramaras of Malwa and the Chandellas of Bundelkhand.

The directly administered areas in the Pala and the Pratihara empires were divided into Bhuktis, and Mandalas or Vishayas. The governor of a province was called Uparika, and the head of a district Vishayapati.

The Uparika was expected to collect land revenue and maintain law-and-order with the help of the army. The Vishayapati was also expected to do the same within his jurisdiction.

During this period, there was an increase of smaller chieftains called Samantas or Bhogapatis who dominated over a number of villages. The Vishyapatis and these smaller chiefs tended to merge with each other and later on, the word Samanta began to be used indiscriminately for both of them.

In the Rashtrakuta kingdom, the directly administered areas were divided into Rashtra (provinces), Vishayas and Bhuktis. The head of a Rashtra was called the rashtrapati, and he performed the same functions as the Uparika. The head of a Vishaya here was called Pattala.

Below these territorial units was a village, which was the basic unit of administration. The village administration was carried on by the village headman and the village accountant whose posts were generally hereditary. They were paid by grants of rent-free lands.

The headman was often helped in his duties by the village elder called Grama-Mahajana or Grama-Mahamattara. In the Rashtrakuta kingdom particularly in Karnataka, there were village committees to manage local schools, tanks/ponds, temples and roads. They could also receive money or property in trust and manage them.

These committees worked in close cooperation with the village headmen and received a percentage of the revenue collection. Simple disputes were also decided by these committees.

Towns also had similar committees to which the heads of the guilds wee also associated. Law-and-order in the towns and in their immediate locality was the responsibility f the Koshta-pala in the towns.

(Source: History books and notes from CSE preparation days)