Ashoka's Dhamma and his rock edicts: A recap

 

Maurya emperor Ashoka riding a chariot in a Sanchi Stupa relief (Photo: Twitter)

Ashokan policy of Dhamma has been a topic of lively discussion and the best source to know about his Dhamma is his edicts. The edicts were primarily written to explain to the people the principles of Dhamma. What comes out from his edicts is that the Dhamma was not any particular religious faith or practice. It was also not an arbitrarily formulated royal policy. Dhamma related to the norms of social behaviour and activities in a very general sense and in his Dhamma, Ashoka attempted a very careful synthesis of various norms which were current in his times.

The Dhamma had a historical background that served as a set of causes effecting in an official policy of one of the most powerful kings the world has seen.

SOCIOECONOMIC BACKGROUND

The Mauryan period witnessed a change in the economic structure of society largely due to the increasing use of iron. It has generally been argued that the use of the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) pottery is an indicator of material prosperity of the period.

The use of punch-marked coins of silver and some other varieties of coins, the conscious intervention of the state to safeguard trade routes and the rise of urban centres point to a structured change in the economy. It required necessary adjustments in society.

The commercial classes had also come to the forefront. The emergence of urban culture by its very logic demanded a more flexible social organisation.

The incorporation of tribes and peoples from the outlying areas into the social fabric also presented a problem. The rigidity of the Brahmanical class sharpened the division within society. The lower orders turned to various heterodox sects and this created social tensions.

It was this socioeconomic situation which emperor Ashoka inherited when he ascended the Mauryan throne.

RELIGIOUS BACKGROUND

The Brahmanical hold over society was increasingly coming under severe attack. The privileges of the priests, the rigidity of the caste system and elaborate rituals were being questioned. The lower orders among the four caste-classes began to favour new sects. The opposition to the Brahmanism by the commercial class was to give a fillip to the other sects of society.

On the other hand, Buddhism opposed the dominance of the Brahmanas and the concept of sacrifice and rituals. Buddhism had begun as a schismatic movement from the more orthodox Brahmanism. Its fundamentals were based on an emphasis on misery and advocacy of the middle path. It appealed to the lower orders and to the emerging social classes. The humane approach to relations in society preached by Buddhism further attracted different sections to Buddhism. Ashoka’s Dhamma bore deep influence of Buddhism.

POLITICAL BACKGROUND

By the time Ashoka ascended the throne, the state system of Mahajanapadas had grown very elaborate and complex from where it had started during the Mahajanapada era.

Now, there was political supremacy of one region (Magadha) over a vast territory which comprised many previous kingdoms, gana-sanghas and areas where no organised states had existed before.

Within this vast territory, there was existence of various geographical regions, cultural areas and different beliefs, faiths and practices.

There was monopoly of fore by a ruling class of which the emperor was the supreme head.

The state appropriated a very substantial quantity of surplus from agriculture, commerce and other sources.

A large administrative apparatus was developed for governing the people and territories.

The complexity of the state system demanded an imaginative policy from the emperor based on minimal use of force in such a large empire having diverse forms of economy and religions. It could not have been controlled by an army alone. A more feasible alternative was the propagation of a policy that would work at an ideological level and reach out to all sections of society.

The policy of Dhamma was such an endeavour. Obviously, the policy of Dhamma was an earnest attempt at solving some of the problems a complex society faced. However, it is also true that Ashoka’s personal beliefs and his own perception of how he should respond to the problems of his empire were responsible for the formulation of the policy of Dhamma.

CONTENTS OF DHAMMA

The principles of Dhamma were so formulated as to be acceptable to people belonging to different communities and following any religious sect. Dhamma was not given any formal definition or structure. It emphasised on toleration and general behaviour of people. Its emphasis in particular was on dual toleration – of people themselves and also their various beliefs and ideas.

There is stress on showing consideration towards slaves and servants, obedience to elders, and generosity towards the needy, Brahmanas and Shramanas. Ashoka prescribed tolerance of different religious sects in an attempt to create a sense of harmony.

The policy of Dhamma also laid emphasis on non-violence, which was to be pracised by giving up war and conquests, and also as a restraint on killing of animals. However, Ashoka was conscious that display of his political and military might up to a certain degree could be necessary to keep his empire intact and certain sections of people, especially some primitive forest tribes in check.

The policy of Dhamma included certain welfare measures such as planting of trees, digging up of wells etc. Ashoka denounced certain ceremonies and sacrifices practised regularly on various occasions as meaningless.

A group of officers known as the Dhamma Mahamattas were instituted to implement and publicise various aspects of Dhamma. Ashoka thrust a very special responsibility on them to carry his messages to various sections of society. However, they seem to have developed into a type of priesthood of Dhamma with great powers and soon began to interfere in politics as well.

DHAMMA AS PER MAJOR ROCK EDICTS

Major Rock Edict-I

It declared prohibition of animal sacrifice and holiday festive gatherings.

Major Rock Edict-II

It related to certain measures of social welfare which were included in the working of Dhamma. It mentioned medical treatment for men and animals, construction of roads, wells and planting of fruit-bearing trees and medicinal herbs.

Also talked about states outside the boundaries of Magadh empire: Pandyas, Satyapuras and Keralaputras of South India.

Major Rock Edict-III

It declared that liberality towards Brahmanans and Shramanas is a virtue. Respect to mother and father is a good quality to have. Empire officials Yuktas, Pradeshikas and Rajukas would go every five years to different parts of his empire to spread Dhamma.

Major Rock Edict-IV

Dhammaghosha (bugle of righteousness or Dhamma) over Bherighosha (bugle of war). It said that due to the policy of Dghamma, the lack of morality and disrespect towards Brahmanas and Shramanas, violence, unseemly behavior towards friends, relatives and others, and evils of this kind have been checked. The killing of animals to a large extent was also stopped.

Major Rock Edict-V

It referred to the appointment of Dhamma Mahamattas for the first time in the twelfth year of his reign. These special officers were by the emperor to look after the interests of all sects and religions and spread the message of Dhamma in each nook and cranny of the state. The implementation of the plicy of Dhamma was entrusted in their hands.

It talked about treating slaves right and humane.

Major Rock Edict-VI

It was an instruction to Dhamma Mahamattas. They were told that they could bring their reports to the emperor at any time, irrespective of whatever activity he may be engaged in. the second part of the edict dealt with speedy administration and smooth transaction of business.

Major Rock Edict-VII

It talked the necessity of tolerance towards different religions among all sects, and welfare measures being undertaken by the emperor/empire for the public not only within the Magadhan territories but in his neighbouring kingdoms as well.

Major Rock Edict-VIII

It talked about Dhammayatras saying that the emperor would undertake these tours instead of traditional hunting expedition to improve and deepen his contact with various sections of people of the empire.

It mentioned about Ashoka’s first visit to Bodh Gaya and Bodhi Tree, giving importance to Dhamma Yatra.

Major Rock Edict-IX

It attacked ceremonies performed at birth, illness, marriage and before setting out for a journey. A censure was passed against ceremonies observed by wives and mothers. Ashoka instead laid stress on the practice of Dhamma and usefulness of ceremonies.

Major Rock Edict-X

It denounced fame and glory, and reasserted the merit of following the policy of Dhamma.

Major Rock Edict-XI

It is a further explanation of Dhamma with emphasis on showing respect to elders, abstaining from killing animals, liberality towards friends and being humane towards slaves and servants.

Major Rock Edict-XII

Similar to MRE-VIII, it reflected the anxiety of Emperor Ashoka that he fled owing to conflict between competing sects and carried instructions for maintaining harmony.

It mentioned about Ithijika Mahamatta, the high-ranking official in charge of women’s welfare.

Major Rock Edict-XIII

It is of paramount importance in understanding the Ashokan policy of Dhamma. It prescribed conquests by Dhamma instead of war. This was a logical culmination of the thought process which began with the first MRE. This is Ashoka’s testament against war. It graphically depicted the tragedy of war.

This MRE was issued at the end of the Kalinga War bearing testimony to how Ashoka underwent a change in heart from an being aggressive and violent warrior to a preacher of peace and Dhamma.

It gave details of Magadha’s victory over Kalinga and mentioned Ashoka’s Dhamma Vijay over Greek kings Antiochus of Syria (Amtiyoko), Ptolemy of Egypt (Turamaye), Magas of Cyrene (Maka), Antigonus of Macedon (Amtikini), Alexander of Epirus (Alikasudaro). It also mentioned about Pandyas and Cholas in South India.

There is another MRE, the fourteenth. It entailed the purpose of rock edicts – to spread Dhamma and policies of the emperor.

PS: Ashoka put out his instructions through a series of edicts inscribed on rocks installed across his empire. These edicts are categorized by historians into five simpler groups:

-        Major Rock Edicts

-        Minor Rock Edicts

-        Separate Rock Edicts

-        Major Pillar Edicts

-        Minor Pillar Edicts

There are altogether 33 inscriptions that have been found in the edicts recovered/survived so far.

ASHOKA’S DHAMMA AND HIS STATE

Ashoka’s Dhamma was not simply a collection of lofty and feel-good phrases. He consciously adopted Dhamma as a matter of state policy.

It was a major departure from Arthashastra, the political treatise that formed the basis of kingship during Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the dynasty. In the Arthashastra, the king owed nothing to anyone. His only job was to rule the state efficiently.

But Ashoka’s Dhamma was a state policy. He declared that “all men are my children” and “whatever exertion I make, I strive only to discharge the debt that I owe to all living creatures”. It was totally a new and inspiring ideal of kingship.

Ashoka wanted to conquer the world through love and faith and hence he sent many missions to propagate Dhamma to even far flung places such as Egypt and Greece besides relatively nearby Sri Lanka.

The preparation of Dhamma included several measures for people’s welfare. Centres for medical treatment of men and animals/beasts were founded inside and outside the empire. Shady groves, wells fruit orchards and rest houses were laid out. This kind of charity work was a radically different attitude from the king of Arthashastra, who would not incur any expenses unless they brought more revenues in return.

Ashoka prohibited useless sacrifices and certain forms of gatherings which led to waste, and indiscipline and superstition. He recruited Dhamma Mahamattas for that purpose. They were to see to it that people of different sects were treated equally and fairly. Moreover, they were also asked to look after the welfare of prisoners. Many of the convicts who were kept in fetters after their sentence had expired were to be released. Those sentenced to death were to be given a grace for three days.

Ashoka launched Dhamma Yatra, righteous tours. He and his high-ranking officials were to tour the country in order to propagate Dhamma and establish direct contact with his subjects.

Ashoka renounced war and conquest by violence, and forbade killing of many animals. Ashoka himself set an example of vegetarianism by almost stopping consumption of meat in his royal household.

It was because of such attitudes and policies that modern writers like Kem called him “monk in a king’s garb”.

DHAMMA: INTERPRETATION

It has been suggested that it was the original Buddhist thought that was being preached by Ashoka as Dhamma, and later on, certain theological additions were made to Buddhism. This kind of thinking is based on Buddhist chronicles. But definitely, Ashoka did not favour Buddhism at the expense of other religious beliefs.

Ashoka’s creation of the institution of Dhamma Mahamatta indicates that Ashoka’s Dhamma was not to favour any particular religious doctrine. Had that been the case, there would not have been any need for such an official as Ashoka could have utilised the organisation of Sangha to propagate Dhamma.

Further, Ashoka wanted to promote tolerance and respect for all religious sects, and duty of the Dhamma Mahamattas included working for Brahmanas and Shramanas.

Some historians have suggested that Ashoka’s banning of sacrifices and the favour that he showed to Buddhists led to Brahmanical reaction, which, in turn, led to the decline of the Mauryan empire. Others believe that the stopping of wars and emphasis on non-violence crippled the military might of the empire. This led to the collapse of the empire, after the death of Ashoka.

However, Romila Thapar has shown that Ashoka’s Dhamma, apart from being a document of his humanness, was also an answer to the socio-political needs of the contemporary situation.

That it was not anti-Brahmanical is proven by the fact that respect for Brahmanas and Shramanas was an integral part of Ashoka’s Dhamma. His emphasis on non-violence did not blind him to the needs of the state. He warned the Atavikas (forest tribes) of using the military force of the empire if they did not mend their ways.

Ashoka’s ‘no to war’ policy came at a time when his empire had almost reached its natural boundaries. In the deep south, he had friendly ties with the Cholas and the Pandyas. Sri Lanka was an admiring ally. The policy of tolerance was a wise course of action in an ethnically diverse, religiously varied and class-divided society.

Ashoka’s empire was a conglomerate of diverse groups. There were farmers, pastoral nomads and hunter gatherers besides a burgeoning urban population. There were Greeks, Kamobjas and Bhojas, and hundreds of groups following divergent traditions.

In such a society and political composition, the policy of tolerance was the need of the hour. Ashoka tried to transcend the parochial cultural traditions by a broad set of ethical principles. It is, therefore, obvious that he was not establishing a new religion. He was simply trying to impress upon his society to guide along ethical and moral principles that suited his politics quite well.

Why India got socio-religious reformers 600 years before Christ

Vardhman Mahavira

Jesus Christ was born in 6 BCE (before common era). His religious teachings heralded a socio-religious revolution in the West. He preached peace to an extremely quarrelsome population from the deserts of Arab to the greeneries of Greece and Italy. But historians tell us that the real impact of the Christ revolution happened after Jesus Christ's teachings hit the head of Constantine One or Constantine, the Great. 

Though some historians doubt his absolute belief in Christianity but they agree that he identified himself as a Christian. One particular incident is often cited. That when he was leading his army to fight off an invader, a pagan, just outside Rome in the early fourth century (311-12), he saw an image in the sky. As the narrative goes, his enemy believed in a prophesy that the enemies of Rome would prevail in the war. Constantine, on the other hand, saw an image in the sky -- Chi-Ro (kee-ro), represented by two Greek letters -- x and p -- combined together with words inscribed on air: by this sign, conquer. 

He led his army to victory. The next year, he declared persecution of Christians illegal in Rome. He made Chi-Ro the official insignia of his army, which won many a battle, vastly expanding the Roman empire, and made Byzantine his capital christened as Constantinople, now Istanbul. This Chi-Ro later became the Christian Cross for the Christian armies. The impact of his deeds was such that Christianity was declared the official religion of Rome seventy years later.

This story is originally very long. I have tried to tell it in short. Even this abridged version is lengthy for a write-up on how socio-religious movements happened in India many a centuries before Christianity made a true impact in the West. But I told this story on purpose. Most people need a reference point or a familiar background against which they appreciate some intrinsically known facts. We tend to get used to the worst and the best almost in the same mental-psychological manner. We just get used to it. 

I had read somewhere that when Mahavira and Buddha happened to the Indian subcontinent, there were more than 560 (562, if I remember correctly) socio-religious reformers of repute. This was happening more than 500 years before Christ was born, and more than 800 years before Christianity began taking its real shape. And unlike Christianity, the most popular religion on the planet, none of these socio-religious philosophies needed an army to stamp their authority on the minds of the then-Indian population. All of them received respect from people even though many of them fought among themselves in their bid to establish superiority of their own philosophy.

So, the natural question is, why India produced so many reformers and two of the world's greatest ever in those years?

Society must have needed them. There must have been situations or a culmination of situations which saw society producing these luminaries and accepting them as the guiding lights. The answer to this question could be found in existing social-religious conditions and the material progress of the time. Let's reconstruct both these aspects here.

Social background

In the earlier times, Vedas and Upanishads were the core of socio-religious beliefs. The language of these literature was Sanskrit, a chaste form compared to modern-day Sanskrit to the extent that many historians prefer to call it Vedic Sanskrit or archaic Sanskrit. The population generally spoke their regional languages with enough number of people knowing a few languages from different parts of India. I am not sure when it happened a disconnect had been established between what was written in the Vedas and Upanishads, and what reached to the common people not versed in Sanskrit.

This disconnect had a strong link to how society stratified over the past one thousand years or so. By now, society was clearly divided into four varnas: Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. It is remarkable to note here is that Brahmanas were originally one of perhaps 16 classes of Vedic priests. But by sixth century before common era, they had developed into a separate caste with their own sub-castes with a claim to the top stratum of society. But their claim was not yet unchallenged. Kshatriyas, who practically owned geography-clamped societies, jostled for supremacy, some of the historians tell us. 

Monolithic statue of Gautam Buddha installed in a Hyderabad lake (Pic: Twitter)

Vish of the Rig Vedic times had classified themselves in several castes but maintained their Varna identity. Shudras had developed from all other Varnas but now had a relegated position for engaging in labour-intensive activities. It is ironical to see that both Kshatriyas and Shudras were in labour-intensive fields, and performed two equally significant basic functions of a society but were seen differently, and occupied almost the extreme ends of the social ladder. Kshatriyas provided protection to society. Shudra fed society, clothed it, gave it shoes, manufactured weapons of protection and served the rest in every possible way to ensure that societal communities continue to flourish. 

Now, each Varna was assigned well-defined functions. But unlike the Vedic times, the Varnas were now emphatically based on birth. The two top Varnas enjoyed some privileges. Brahmanas were considered the storekeeper of knowledge and wisdom. This gave them intellectual and psychological superiority over the rest. However, it seems illogical that all from the Brahmana Varna enjoyed the same authority over the rest. There must have been poor among them who had to toil hard to eke their livelihood. But they could not contribute to literature. So, their status is completely unknown. We anyway know only what has survived. The rest is an informed logical guess.

Brahmanas were priests and teachers. They demanded several privileges including those of receiving gifts from the kings, local chieftains and the common people, and also exemption from paying taxes and subjection to punishments for various crimes, if and when they committed. However, they must not have been getting a blanket cover from punishment or were offered gifts without questions or with total devotion as the fate of Chanakya is well-documented. 

He lived some 300 years after this phase of socio-religious reforms. Still, he could not claim all that authority which literature of the past generally makes us believe. Again, we know only what has survived. Chanakya was poor despite his father being a well-reputed scholar. He goes to the emperor but was not given gifts that he wanted. He was, in fact, ridiculed. He ended up insulting the king in a fit of rage, and in return, got banished. So, Chanakya originally got neither gift nor exemption from punishment. But some must have got both. This can be compared with today's societal set-up. Not all politicians or professors are equally prestigious or powerful. 

Kshatriyas fought and governed claiming taxes, and living off the revenues collected. They were the real power-wielders. But again not all Kshatriyas could have been equally powerful. Obviously, one could be the king and the other the front-line foot-soldier.

(Photo: Twitter)

The Vaishyas engaged in agriculture, cattle rearing and trade. They employed Shudras in big numbers for their activities. They appear as the principal tax payers. However, along with the two other higher Varnas, they were placed in the class of Dwija -- or twice-born people. This meant that they could hold the investiture ceremony, in which an adolescent male could wear a ceremonial thread across his torso. The three Varnas had different rules for wearing the sacred thread. 

Shudras were not allowed to organise the investiture ceremony for themselves. They were supposed to serve the other three Varnas. They along with women of all Varnas were practically denied Vedic education or studies. However, again the literature from later years -- the Chanakya-Chandragupta years -- indicate that this rule must not have been strictly followed or enforced by the ruler-teacher class. For, we see the Nanda dynasty emerge as the most powerful ruling family before the Mauryas came on the scene. The Nandas were said to be from the Shudra Varna. And the Mauryan literature talks about powerful women. The emperor himself was protected by a band of women bodyguards. This would not have been possible if society was so dead against Shudras and women as the surviving literature from the socio-religious upheaval years makes us believe.

But yes, Shudras and women were by now employed as domestic help and lived like slaves. Slaves in India were not comparable to the slaves recorded in the West. Here, their living condition was much more humane making a fourth century Greek ambassador believe and record that India did not practise slavery. Maybe, the Sanskrit word "dasa" is not the correct parallel of "slave" of English. 

Shudras were the chief manual labour force in the agricultural field -- some were agricultural slaves. They were craftsmen and craftswomen. They were practically hired for every vocation or business that needed manual labour except warfare. They might have been employed there in support staff as baggage and weapon carriers. Some literature, as historians say, describe them as cruel, greedy and thieving in habit, and some of them were treated as untouchables. Shudras must have made up the biggest chunk of society, and must have felt utterly frustrated with their social, economic and religious positioning in that societal set-up just because of their birth to a particular couple branded as belonging to a particular Varna. 

There must have been yearning for luxury and respect among them. The societal set-up was such that the higher the Varna the more privileges and purity one could claim. For the same offence, Shudras would get severer punishment compared to Brahmanas.

Naturally, Varna-divided society would have generated tensions. There are no means to ascertain the reactions from Vaishyas and Shudras. But Kshatriyas, who were the royalty, recorded their reaction against the ritualistic domination of Brahmanas. They appear to have led a sort of protest movement to demolish the principle of importance attached to birth in the Varna system. Their protest saw Brahmanas as targets, not violent but ideological. It is no mere coincidence that the two of the greatest socio-religious leaders were Kshatriyas -- Vardhman and Gautam.

Material base

This is considered as a bigger factor contributing to the rise of socio-religious reforms in the sixth century before common era. It was the time of the introduction of a new agricultural economy in the middle and lower Gangetic plains. Introduction of iron technology to agriculture heralded the transformation. 

These areas -- from Bihar-Bengal to eastern Uttar Pradesh -- were thickly forested in earlier times. The Aryan people cleared the forests for agriculture, as literature suggests. In the middle Gangetic plains, large scale habitations emerged around 600 BCE, as a result. The use of iron implements made forest clearing, farming and large-scale settlements easier. Agriculture-based economy got a new fillip with iron ploughshare, which required the use of bullocks. The supply of bullocks needed a flourishing animal husbandry as vocation. 

It was not that only Magadh rose to power. Kingh Kharvel invaded Magadh and defeated its king, and brought back Jain's statue to Kalinga (Photo: Twitter)

A whole new economic equation came into place. This was in a sharp contrast to the Vedic practice of indiscriminate sacrificing of cattle -- a necessity of the time to maintain a population balance in a society that thrived on milk and other cattle products, and used the same for transportation. The sacrifice of cattle in religious ceremonies meant that demand for bullocks could not be met. This came in the way of the new phase of agricultural revolution. The cattle wealth had slowly declined, the historians tell us. They also tell us that some communities, particularly those living on the southern fringes of the emerging Magadh empire, killed cattle for food. New agricultural revolution challenged their food habit by making availability of food easier than before, and also needed them to change their food habits so that there was no short-supply of cattle needed for the farms. 

If the new agrarian economy had to be stable, this indiscriminate killing of cattle with religious sanction needed to be stopped. A new guiding religious belief had to emerge to sustain the civil living based on new agricultural revolution.

In other words, the time had come for an idea backed by socio-religious philosophy that could preach absolute non-violence in an intellectually and spiritually glamourised fashion.

The period saw the rise of a large number of cities in the middle Gangetic plains. We all know a city organically grows only when there is abundant supply of food. If food supply is not assured, hunting, gathering or farming remains the primary vocation. City-life is a tertiary scale of socio-economy. These new cities needed and had many artisans and traders, who began to use coins for the first time on regular basis for economic exchange. The earlier barter economy exchange model could not support the growth. The earliest coins to survive belong to the fifth century before common era, and are called the punch-marked coins.

The use of coins naturally facilitated trade and commerce, which added to the importance of Vaishyas. But in the Brahmanical order, they did not get much importance. So, they looked for an order, which would improve their social position. This is why Vaishyas extended generous support to both Mahavira and Buddha. 

Further, Jainism and Buddhism, in their initial stages, did not attach any importance to the existing Varna system. Secondly, they preached the gospel of non-violence, which would put an end to wars between different kingdoms and consequently promote trade and commerce. Third, the Brahmanical law books, called Dharmashastras, decried lending money on interest. A person who lived on interest was condemned by them. Therefore, Vaishyas were not held in esteem and were eager to improve their social status.

On the other hand, there was a also strong reaction against various forms of private property. The new forms of property created social inequalities, and caused misery and suffering to the masses. So, the common people yearned for a more harmonious life and society. The ascetic ideal was one of the ideas espoused by the Vedas. A section of society now must have wanted to adopt this ideal, which was dispensed with the new forms of property and the new style of life.

Both Jainism and Buddhism preferred simple puritan ascetic living. The Jain and Buddhist monks were asked to forego the good things of life. They were not allowed to touch gold and silver. They were to accept only as much from their patrons as was sufficient to keep their body and psyche in harmony. The people, therefore, identified themselves such monks and supported the religious reactions against the Vedic religious practices. 

Also, since both Vardhman and Gautam came from ruling Kshatriya families, they commanded authority over both the priestly class and the common populace. Their ideas were patiently listened to, and adopted as far as possible. Since they came from Kshatriya Varna, the Brahmanas could not denounce them with arguments that they were not versed in the Vedas. This logic would not have any weight in society. Brahmanas were the interpreters of the Vedic religion and system, and Kshatriyas were enforcer of the order. 

Now, Kshatriyas took up the task to modify the social order and bring about a socio-religious reform. This went a long way in giving Jainism and Buddhism credibility as the royal warrior class produced teachers who preached peace and denounced the malpractices of the Vedas. This explains why unlike Christianity, where a non-violent preacher Christ needed a warring emperor to take off 300 years later, Jainism and Buddhism got royal support almost since their beginning, and none used the new religious ideas to launch a war on the other kingdom. Both kingdoms could be adopting the new ideas. And it also explains why Mauryan emperor Ashoka took the task of spreading Buddhism after renouncing warfare.

Buddhism: Institution of Sangha

The Sangha was the religious order of the Buddhists. It was a well-organised and powerful institution, which popularised Buddhism. Membership was open to all persons irrespective of caste. There was age criterion for eligibility. The inductee must have completed the age of 15 at the time of becoming a member of the Buddhist Sangha. Interestingly, many millennia later, legislators thought 15 is the right age for giving consent.

Besides, the Buddhist Sangha would not accord membership to criminals unless reformed, lepers (controlling infection through medication was not known or common back then), slaves (their status in those times in India remains a subject of discussion among historians), persons suffering from an infectious disease, and an indebted person (who needed to pay off her debt before earning eligibility).

The Buddha was not initially inclined to admit women into the Sangha fearing that a gender-mix might make it difficult for the Sangha to maintain the requisite discipline. His chief disciple, Ananda, and foster mother, Mahaprajapati Gautami, argued for their entry into the Sangha.

The Buddha agreed but it is said in some stories that he warned Ananda that the decision would weaken the institution of the Sangha and cut short its life by 500 years which would have served society for a thousand years otherwise. The Sangha weakened over the following centuries particularly in the post-Ashoka era but picked up strength during the Kanishka times.

The members of the Sangha were monks and followed a bureaucratic hierarchy to manage the affairs of the institution. The monks had to ceremonially shave their head and wear yellow or saffron robes upon admission into the Sangha. 

Monks were expected to go on a daily round in order to preach Buddhism and seek alms to feed themselves. During the four months of rainy season, they stayed at one place, usually fixed, and meditated on the questions of the contemporary society and find answers from the tenets of Buddhism. This was called the retreat or Vasa.

The Sangha also promoted education among people. Unlike Brahmanism, people of different orders of society got access to education under the Buddhist Sangha. Naturally, the non-Brahmins got educated and the formal education reached wider sections of society, a departure from the history of past few centuries.

The Sangha was governed on democratic principles. It was empowered to enforce discipline among its members. There was a code of conduct for the monks and nuns. But differences were cropping up in the Sangha even during the time of the Buddha.

Paul Carus, the celebrated author of the “Gospel of Buddha”, says the Buddha, on the advice of Magadh king Bimbisar who was planning retirement, marked two days in every fortnight for community preaching by a monk ordained in Buddhism. He fixed the eighth and 14-15th day of every fortnight – a model Bimbisar had suggested on the lines of the practice of some Brahmanical sect of Rajgriha, his capital.

People started flocking to such community preaching events. But soon they complained that the monks who were supposed to elucidate Buddhism. A dispute arose. To settle the dispute, the Buddha provided for Pratimoksha (pardon by the Sangha after self-confession of indiscipline or violation of the Sangha rules by a monk). This was to be done on the same two days of the fortnight. This meeting and the process was called Uposatha and was to be held in public.

The monk who violated the Buddhist code had to confess upon being asked by the senior monk at the Uposatha. Others were to remain silent. The question was to be asked three times. If a violator remained silent three times, she/he would be considered guilty of perjury, which was an obstacle in attaining nirvana – freedom from the cycle of suffering.

At another place, Carus has shown that the Buddha walked out of a Sangha event as the rival monks would not listen to reason. After some time when his disciples insisted upon finding a solution, the Buddha addressed both the sides, first separately and then jointly. He had asked his disciples not to discriminate against one group or the other for their preference for one or abhorrence of the other. 

In the joint session, the Buddha told them the story of a Koshal king Deerghiti, his rival Kashi king Brahmadutta, and Deerghiti’s son Deerghayu who ended the bitterness between the two royal families. Here, the Buddha enunciated that hate could only be conquered by hatelessness – something that became popular after the Bible’s narration of ‘an eye for an eye will make the whole world blind’.

Thus, the members of Sangha – both monks and nuns – had to follow their respective codes of conduct. They were bound to obey the code if they were to stay within the Sangha. The Sangha had the power to punish any of the erring members.

Buddhism: Teachings of the Buddha

 

The basic teachings of the Buddha are contained in:

-        Four Satyas (noble truths)

-        Eight paths (Ashtangika Marga)

The four noble truths are:

1.    The world is full of sufferings.

2.    All sufferings have a cause. Desire, ignorance and attachment are the causes of these sufferings.

3.    A suffering could be removed by destroying its cause.

4.    One must know the right path to end the sufferings. This path is eight-fold or the Ashtangika Marg.

The eight-fold path is enunciated as follows:

1.    Right View/Observation: Finding the right view through observation is the first of the paths. This is required to understand that the world is filled with sorrow emerging from desires. Ending the desire will lead to liberation of the self.

2.    Right Aim/Determination: It refers to having the determination for the right aim, which is to seek to avoid enjoyment of the senses and luxury. It aims to love the humanity and augment the happiness of others.

3.    Right Speech: It emphasises the endeavour to speak truth always.

4.    Right Action: This is interpreted as unselfish deeds or action.

5.    Right Livelihood: This path instructs a follower to live his or her life by honest means. This does not take an extreme position. For example, it allows profit-making by business people but without subjecting somebody to sufferings.

6.    Right Exercise: This means making the right efforts, interpreted as the proper way to control one’s senses so as to prevent bad or detrimental thoughts. It elucidates that one can destroy desires and attachments through right mental exercises.

7.    Right Memory/Mindfulness: It recognises that there are evil worldly affairs which trigger desires and attachments. This path calls for understanding the idea that the body is impermanent, and that meditation is the means for removal of the worldly evils.

8.    Right Meditation/Concentration: Observation of the right meditation will lead to inner peace. The right meditation will unravel the real truth.

Buddhism puts great emphasis on the law of karma (action). This means that the present is determined by one’s past actions. Everyone is the maker of one’s own destiny. The condition of a person in this life or the next life depends on one’s own actions. Humans are born again and again to reap the fruits of their karma. If an individual has no sins or desires, she or he is not born again.

The doctrine of karma is an essential part of the Buddhist tenet. The Buddha preached nirvana, described as the ultimate goal of a human life. One can attain nirvana by the process of elimination of desires. The Buddha laid emphasis the moral life of an individual to complete this process.

Buddhism is what could be termed a secular religion for the Buddha neither accepted nor rejected the existence of god. He did not consider the god question as significant enough to discuss. He was more concerned about the individual and one’s action than deliberating the question of god. The Buddha did not believe in the existence of soul either. It is unique in being a soul-less religion. This means there is no heaven in Buddhism.

The Buddha emphasised on the spirit of love, which he said could be harboured for all living beings by following the path of ahimsa, non-violence. The principle of ahimsa was underscored and emphasised in Buddhism but not as much as in Jainism. The Buddha prescribed that an individual should pursue the middle-path shunning the extremes of severe asceticism and luxurious life.

The teachings of the Buddha posed a serious challenge to the existing Brahmanical ideas in the following ways:

1.    The Buddha’s liberal and democratic approach towards life quickly attracted people from all sections of society. His disregard for the caste system and the supremacy of the Brahmins through the law of karma was welcomed by the people who were given lower social strata in the pecking order. People were admitted to the Buddhist order without the consideration of caste and, later, gender.

2.    Salvation of an individual, Buddhism declared, depended on one’s good deeds not the birth in a particular community. This meant that there was no need for a priest or spiritual middle-man to achieve nirvana.

3.    The Buddha also rejected the supreme authority of the Vedas by condemning the practice of animal sacrifice. The Buddha said neither a sacrifice to gods could wash away a sin nor could any prayer of any priest do any good to a sinner.

With these influences, Buddhism in a very short period emerged as an organised religion and the Buddha’s teachings were codified forming the Buddhist cannon, the collection of his teachings. The Buddhist cannon can be divided into three sections:

1.    Sutta Pitaka: It consists of five Nikayas (bodies) of religious discourses and sayings of the Buddha. The fifth of the Nikayas contains the Jatakakathas (the tales of the births).

2.    Vinaya Pitaka: It contains the rules for monastic discipline.

3.    Abhidhamma Pitaka: It contains the philosophical ideas of the teachings of the Buddha. It is written in the form of questions and answers.

Buddhism: Discovery of a new path

Buddhism was founded by Gautam Buddha. His father was Shuddhodana, the chief of the Shakya clan and his mother was Maya, a princess of the Koliya clan. He was born in the Lumbini grove in Nepal. This is mentioned in an inscribed pillar installed on the orders of Maurya emperor Ashoka. His year of birth has been a matter of dispute, generally taken as 563 BC.

Though Gautam spent his life in royal splendour, the pomp and luxury failed to attract his mind. As the story goes, Gautam was deeply affected by the sight of an old man, a sick person, a dead body and an ascetic while on one of his capital tours. The misery of the human life cast a deep shadow like a magic spell on Gautam.

In his quest to find a solution to the misery of the humankind, Gautam left his home in the most unceremonious way at the age of 29. After a night of regale at the royal palace, Buddha left his wife, Yashodhara, and infant/toddler son, Rahul, asleep as he took the first step to his greatness. This is called Mahabhinishkraman (the great departure) in the Buddhist literature.

Gautam spent next six years of his life as a wandering ascetic. He tried all available techniques of penance to find the answer he was seeking. He learnt the technique of meditation from a sage named, Alara Kalama. He also learnt from him the teachings of Upanishads, the spiritual elucidations and commentaries on the Vedas.

During initial years of his spiritual quest, Gautam practised rigid and austere form of meditation. He resorted to different kinds of self-torture hoping to find the truth he was seeking. Self-torture and fasting made him so week that he lost his body weight to resemble a human skeleton.

There is a beautiful story of his turnaround in the Buddhist literature. It says that while Gautam was punishing himself to attune his mind and body to the elusive supreme truth, he heard a woman singing. The song went like this: if you keep the strings of veena (an Indian musical instrument) loose, it would not produce music; if you tighten the strings to its extreme, they will get snapped and there will be no music; to make a veena musical, its strings must have the accurate balance.

In some texts, Gautam is said to be in conversation with a woman over his methods of penance. During this conversation, the woman told him about the musical relation of the strings with veena. The woman offered him kheer. 

Kheer is a sweet dish prepared by boiling rice in milk till it is cooked and until it gives out a specific aroma. Gautam broke his fast and began what evolved into his own techniques of meditation. But breaking his fast made his meditation companions angry and they deserted him.

Gautam now shifted to a place called Uruvela in South Bihar’s Gaya, and sat under a peepal tree near the Rijupalika river. On the 49th day of his meditation, Gautam attained what is called enlightenment or knowledge or Bodhi (derived from Bodh, the Sanskrit word for sense, perception and intelligence). 

That tree became reverential for his followers until it was cut down by a fanatic Bengal ruler named, Shashank in the seventh century. A branch of that tree had already been taken by Maurya emperor Ashoka's daughter Sanghamitra to Anuradhapuram, the capital of pre-modern Sri Lanka, where it was cultured into a tree.

Upon attaining knowledge, Gautam was called the Buddha, the one who knows the answer. The peepal tree became famous as the Bodhi Vriksha (the tree of enlightenment) and the place as Bodh Gaya – a global tourist spot now in the Gaya district of Bihar for which it is a major source of revenue more than 2500 years after Gautam was born.

Gautam as Buddha did not, however, gave his first sermon at Bodh Gaya. He travelled to Sarnath, where his deserter companions were meditating. It is amazing that Gautam Buddha found out where his former companions were – at a distance of about 250 km – in an age when information and communication technologies were what we describe as primitive. Gautam Buddha’s resolve to give his first sermon to this band of deserters also indicates that he made it a point to win over his first or original doubters.

At a place, now called the Deer Park at Sarnath near Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh, Gautam Buddha gave his first sermon to the deserters. This is called the Dharmachakra Pravartan (the setting off the change in the cycle of Dharma). Now, Gautam Buddha began taking disciples.

Ashvojit, Upali, Mogallana, Sariputra and Ananda were his first five disciples. Some of them like Ananda were older to Gautam Buddha. To educate people about the new-found ways of life or Dharma, Gautam Buddha founded the Sangha, the Buddhist monastery system or the Buddhist church. For rest of his life, Gautam Buddha preached his sermons, maximum number of sessions were held at Shravasti in eastern Uttar Pradesh.

Gautam Buddha visited various places to propagate his ideas. Many a time, he had to encounter other sect-founders and followers and engage in shastratha, the ancient Indian tradition of intellectual debate. Besides, Sarnath and Shravasti, Gautam Buddha preached at Mathura, Rajgir, Gaya and Patliputra.

Some of the powerful kings of the time, such as Bimbisara, Ajatshatru and Udayana of the Haryanka dynasty of Magadh, and Prasenajit of Koshala accepted his doctrine and became his disciples. Gautam Buddha also visited Kapilavastu, his father’s capital and accepted his father, mother and son to his the Buddhist fold.

At the age of 80, Gautam Buddha died at Kushinagar. He is said to have eaten his last supper at the home of Chunda Kammaaraputra, a goldsmith. In some texts, Chunda is mentioned as a blacksmith. Probably, he was a smith who dealt in different metals including gold and iron.

Gautam Buddha’s last supper is one of the controversies among the historians. Some claim that Gautam Buddha ate pork for his last meal. Some others describe the words, “shookaramaddava” as some kind of pig or boar milk product served in his supper.

Whatever Gautam Buddha ate at Chunda’s home at Pava in Kushinagar (then in the republic kingdom of the Mallas) that led to food poisoning. Gautam Buddha developed acute dysentery which proved fatal. Despite his worsening health, Gautam Buddha insisted that he travelled to Kushinagara town. 

By the time, he reached the outskirts of the town, Gautam Buddha had become too weak. He asked his favourite disciple, Ananda, to spread out the clothes under a tree for him to take rest. A make-shift bed was prepared between the two Sal trees. The place was near River Kakuttha (now called Ghaghi, a small river). He died of the illness.

There is another story about his last supper. Gautam Buddha is said to have asked Chunda not to feed that meal to anybody else. He asked Chunda, as the story goes, to bury the leftover meal. Chunda heeded the advice. 

Before he breathed his last, Gautam Buddha asked Ananda to bring water from the river. He drank it. He also warned Ananda about his followers holding Chunda responsible for his death. 

Gautam asked Ananda to tell such people that he heard directly from the Buddha that he valued two meals the most – the one offered to him when he shed the austere technique of meditation and adopted the moderate one before attaining Bodhi, and the second offered by Chunda before his Nirvana.

Gautam Buddha: An Introduction

Photo taken on Aug 10, 2015 shows Buddha statues in one of the caves of the Yungang Grottoes, a 1,500-year-old Buddhist site in North China's Shanxi province. Listed as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2001, the Yungang Grottoes contain more than 51,000 statues of the Buddha. (Photo: Twitter/

@zhang_heqing

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His name was Siddhartha, also known as Gautam, and he was a contemporary of Vardhaman Mahavira. There is confusion about the exact date of his birth but historians seem to consider 563 BC as his year of birth. He was born at Kapilavastu in the Himalayan foothills of Nepal as his mother was on her way to parents’ home from her in-laws’ place in Vaishali, an emerging political seat of power in the sixth century BC North Bihar. He was born in the ruling Shakya family.

Siddhartha attained ‘knowledge’ (Bodhi, a derivate of Sanskrit word, Buddhi meaning logic-based intelligence) at Bodh Gaya in South Bihar under a peepal tree. After attaining knowledge, Siddhartha delivered his first sermon at Sarnath in Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh. His first preaching is known as Dharma-chakra-parivartan (literally meaning a change in the cycle of dharma, which is difficult to translate into English) in Buddhism, the philosophy founded by Siddhartha. He was afterwards called Buddha or Lord Buddha.

He preached for forty years and passed away at Kushinagar in Uttar Pradesh at the age of 80 in 483 BC.

He condemned the caste system as false and wrong.

He enunciated four truths that form the basis of Buddhism. These are:

1. Suffering (dukha) exists wherever there is life.
2. Desire is the cause of suffering leading to endless rebirths. The desire for things, existence, experience, immortality, sensual pleasure, worldly possession and power are the causes of suffering.
3. Freedom from suffering is possible. It can be achieved by abandoning desire, dumping one’s individuality and giving up the lust for worldly possessions.
4. There is a way to get rid of this cycle of suffering and rebirths. This is called the eight-fold way. It is alternatively called the middle path in Buddhism. It advocates negation of extremes, for example, the attachment to passion and worldly pleasure on one hand, and the practice of self-mortification and asceticism on the other.

The guiding principles for this liberation are enunciated in what is called the eight-fold path, the Ashtanga Marg. It leads to wisdom, calmness, knowledge, enlightenment and liberation. The eight principles are:

1. Right View
2. Right Aspiration
3. Right Speech
4. Right Conduct
5. Right Livelihood
6. Right Effort
7. Right Mindfulness
8. Right Meditation

These eight principles are grouped under three categories:

1. Prajna Skandh: Right View, Right Aspiration 
2. Sheel Skandh: Right Speech, Right Conduct, Right Livelihood
3. Samadhi Skandh: Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, Right Meditation

A devoted follower of the eight-fold path attains salvation or nirvana. The attainment of nirvana is the chief objective of Buddhism.

Buddhism (and also Jainism) is non-theistic in nature. The existence of God is irrelevant to the Buddhist doctrine. Buddhism believes that God is not the creator of the universe because if he is the creator, he would have to be responsible for the miseries of the world.

Buddha laid emphasis on self-effort or self-sufficiency. That is, “one who looks onto oneself”. In Buddhism, nothing is left for divine intervention.

Buddha also believed that a soul does not exist (after death), and that there is no transmigration of the soul. That soul dies with the death of the person. What is called soul is, in reality, a physical or mental aggregate of five impermanent conditions. These are:

1. Form (the body)
2. Feelings
3. Idea or understanding
4. Will
5. Pure consciousness

The human personality or soul is said to be bound within a process which Buddha called the Wheel of Existence or the Existence Wheel. We keep the wheel revolving through ignorance and indulge in actions that create karma. This karma leads to rebirth and successive existences, all beings inseparably bound with misery.

The question that arises is if the soul dies with he man, how does karma of a man lead to rebirth?

Milinda Panha has explained this aspect of Buddhist philosophy in terms of a wave which rises in water, gives birth to another and then disappears itself. Karma through consciousness becomes the cause for rebirth.

Like Mahavira, Buddha too laid down several sheelas (rules of conduct) for his followers. In general, sheelas prohibit destruction of life and causing of pain or injury to any living being. Ahimsa is fundamental to Buddhism.

Stealing, falsehood, use of intoxicants, coveting the property of others, telling lies and indulging in corrupt practices are prohibited.

Some sheelas prohibit magic, prophesy, astrology, religious rituals or worship in any form.

In society, Buddhism took the form of the Sangha, a Buddhist order of monks and laymen.

Sometimes after his death, a credo was formalised for the Buddhis discipline: Keep my faith in Buddha, Dharma and the Sangha. This Buddhist credo is referred to as the Tri-ratna, three jewels.

Buddha started viharas (monasteries), which were places where monks lived and spent their lives praying and preaching Buddhism. The viharas were also used as schools open to people of all strata of society. Some of the more famous were at Nalanda, Vikramshila (in Bihar) and Vallabhi (in Gujarat).

After Buddha, Ashvaghosh and Nagarjuna were great teachers of Buddhism and played significant role in the spread of Buddhism.

After the death of Buddha, four general councils of the Buddhist church (Sangha) were held.

1. First great Sangha was held at Rajagriha in 483 BC, soon after the death of Buddha. The discourses of Buddha were collected, compiled and embodied in the Pali canon. This literature is known as Tri-Pitaka after the conclusion of the third great Sangha, where the third Pitak was compiled.
• Vinaya Pitaka: This deals with the rules of the Buddhist order. It was versed by Buddha’s favourite disciple, Ananda.
• Sutta Pitaka: This is a collection of Buddha’s sermons. It was versed by Buddha’s another great disciple, Upali. The famous Jatakas (or the Jataka Kathas), dealing with the stories from previous births of Buddha, are contained in the Sutta Pitaka. They give us a graphic description of the contemporary society, and make clear references to various regions and geographic divisions.
• Abhidhamma Pitaka: It was compiled at the third great Sangha, held at Patliputra. It is a treatise on metaphysics. It tells us about the preachers, princes, rich, poor, towns and villages of the period. It was versed by Mogaliput Tissa.
2. Second general council was held at Vaishali in 383 BC, a hundred years after the death of Buddha. It was at this convention that sharp divisions within the Buddhist order crept up – the Theravadi (Mayakachchayan) verus Mahasanghika (Mahakassapa) debate began at this Sangha. Interestingly, the bhikshukas (monks) of Vaishali boycotted this assembly, held in their own city.
3. Third general council was held at Patliputra in 250 BC, during the reign of Maurya emperor Ashoka. It was at this session, it was decided to send missionaries to various parts of the Indian subcontinent and beyond, and to make Buddhism an actively proselytising religion.
4. Fourth general council was held in Kashmir in the first century AD. Here, the schism in Buddhism was recognised officially. One branch was called Hinayana or the followers of the lesser vehicle, and the other, Mahayana or the followers of the greater vehicle.

Eventually, Hinayana Buddhism found its stronghold din Ceylon (Sri Lanaka), Burma (Myanmar) and the countries of South-East Asia. Mahayana Buddhism became the dominant sect in India, Central Asia, Tibet, China and Japan.

In Mahayana Buddhism, the belief in deification of Buddha, and image or idol worship (first century AD onwards) with its usual accompaniments, elaborate rituals, religious formulae, charms etc replaced the simpler tenets to place a follower’s faith in Buddha.

It also believed in Bodhisattava, the previous incarnations of Buddha, as essential part of the sect to attain salvation. It adopted Sanskrit as the language for its religious literature, and a new canon developed in as a result.

Hinayana Buddhism, however, continued to practice self-culture and believe that good deeds led to salvation.

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