Ashoka's Dhamma and his rock edicts: A recap

 

Maurya emperor Ashoka riding a chariot in a Sanchi Stupa relief (Photo: Twitter)

Ashokan policy of Dhamma has been a topic of lively discussion and the best source to know about his Dhamma is his edicts. The edicts were primarily written to explain to the people the principles of Dhamma. What comes out from his edicts is that the Dhamma was not any particular religious faith or practice. It was also not an arbitrarily formulated royal policy. Dhamma related to the norms of social behaviour and activities in a very general sense and in his Dhamma, Ashoka attempted a very careful synthesis of various norms which were current in his times.

The Dhamma had a historical background that served as a set of causes effecting in an official policy of one of the most powerful kings the world has seen.

SOCIOECONOMIC BACKGROUND

The Mauryan period witnessed a change in the economic structure of society largely due to the increasing use of iron. It has generally been argued that the use of the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) pottery is an indicator of material prosperity of the period.

The use of punch-marked coins of silver and some other varieties of coins, the conscious intervention of the state to safeguard trade routes and the rise of urban centres point to a structured change in the economy. It required necessary adjustments in society.

The commercial classes had also come to the forefront. The emergence of urban culture by its very logic demanded a more flexible social organisation.

The incorporation of tribes and peoples from the outlying areas into the social fabric also presented a problem. The rigidity of the Brahmanical class sharpened the division within society. The lower orders turned to various heterodox sects and this created social tensions.

It was this socioeconomic situation which emperor Ashoka inherited when he ascended the Mauryan throne.

RELIGIOUS BACKGROUND

The Brahmanical hold over society was increasingly coming under severe attack. The privileges of the priests, the rigidity of the caste system and elaborate rituals were being questioned. The lower orders among the four caste-classes began to favour new sects. The opposition to the Brahmanism by the commercial class was to give a fillip to the other sects of society.

On the other hand, Buddhism opposed the dominance of the Brahmanas and the concept of sacrifice and rituals. Buddhism had begun as a schismatic movement from the more orthodox Brahmanism. Its fundamentals were based on an emphasis on misery and advocacy of the middle path. It appealed to the lower orders and to the emerging social classes. The humane approach to relations in society preached by Buddhism further attracted different sections to Buddhism. Ashoka’s Dhamma bore deep influence of Buddhism.

POLITICAL BACKGROUND

By the time Ashoka ascended the throne, the state system of Mahajanapadas had grown very elaborate and complex from where it had started during the Mahajanapada era.

Now, there was political supremacy of one region (Magadha) over a vast territory which comprised many previous kingdoms, gana-sanghas and areas where no organised states had existed before.

Within this vast territory, there was existence of various geographical regions, cultural areas and different beliefs, faiths and practices.

There was monopoly of fore by a ruling class of which the emperor was the supreme head.

The state appropriated a very substantial quantity of surplus from agriculture, commerce and other sources.

A large administrative apparatus was developed for governing the people and territories.

The complexity of the state system demanded an imaginative policy from the emperor based on minimal use of force in such a large empire having diverse forms of economy and religions. It could not have been controlled by an army alone. A more feasible alternative was the propagation of a policy that would work at an ideological level and reach out to all sections of society.

The policy of Dhamma was such an endeavour. Obviously, the policy of Dhamma was an earnest attempt at solving some of the problems a complex society faced. However, it is also true that Ashoka’s personal beliefs and his own perception of how he should respond to the problems of his empire were responsible for the formulation of the policy of Dhamma.

CONTENTS OF DHAMMA

The principles of Dhamma were so formulated as to be acceptable to people belonging to different communities and following any religious sect. Dhamma was not given any formal definition or structure. It emphasised on toleration and general behaviour of people. Its emphasis in particular was on dual toleration – of people themselves and also their various beliefs and ideas.

There is stress on showing consideration towards slaves and servants, obedience to elders, and generosity towards the needy, Brahmanas and Shramanas. Ashoka prescribed tolerance of different religious sects in an attempt to create a sense of harmony.

The policy of Dhamma also laid emphasis on non-violence, which was to be pracised by giving up war and conquests, and also as a restraint on killing of animals. However, Ashoka was conscious that display of his political and military might up to a certain degree could be necessary to keep his empire intact and certain sections of people, especially some primitive forest tribes in check.

The policy of Dhamma included certain welfare measures such as planting of trees, digging up of wells etc. Ashoka denounced certain ceremonies and sacrifices practised regularly on various occasions as meaningless.

A group of officers known as the Dhamma Mahamattas were instituted to implement and publicise various aspects of Dhamma. Ashoka thrust a very special responsibility on them to carry his messages to various sections of society. However, they seem to have developed into a type of priesthood of Dhamma with great powers and soon began to interfere in politics as well.

DHAMMA AS PER MAJOR ROCK EDICTS

Major Rock Edict-I

It declared prohibition of animal sacrifice and holiday festive gatherings.

Major Rock Edict-II

It related to certain measures of social welfare which were included in the working of Dhamma. It mentioned medical treatment for men and animals, construction of roads, wells and planting of fruit-bearing trees and medicinal herbs.

Also talked about states outside the boundaries of Magadh empire: Pandyas, Satyapuras and Keralaputras of South India.

Major Rock Edict-III

It declared that liberality towards Brahmanans and Shramanas is a virtue. Respect to mother and father is a good quality to have. Empire officials Yuktas, Pradeshikas and Rajukas would go every five years to different parts of his empire to spread Dhamma.

Major Rock Edict-IV

Dhammaghosha (bugle of righteousness or Dhamma) over Bherighosha (bugle of war). It said that due to the policy of Dghamma, the lack of morality and disrespect towards Brahmanas and Shramanas, violence, unseemly behavior towards friends, relatives and others, and evils of this kind have been checked. The killing of animals to a large extent was also stopped.

Major Rock Edict-V

It referred to the appointment of Dhamma Mahamattas for the first time in the twelfth year of his reign. These special officers were by the emperor to look after the interests of all sects and religions and spread the message of Dhamma in each nook and cranny of the state. The implementation of the plicy of Dhamma was entrusted in their hands.

It talked about treating slaves right and humane.

Major Rock Edict-VI

It was an instruction to Dhamma Mahamattas. They were told that they could bring their reports to the emperor at any time, irrespective of whatever activity he may be engaged in. the second part of the edict dealt with speedy administration and smooth transaction of business.

Major Rock Edict-VII

It talked the necessity of tolerance towards different religions among all sects, and welfare measures being undertaken by the emperor/empire for the public not only within the Magadhan territories but in his neighbouring kingdoms as well.

Major Rock Edict-VIII

It talked about Dhammayatras saying that the emperor would undertake these tours instead of traditional hunting expedition to improve and deepen his contact with various sections of people of the empire.

It mentioned about Ashoka’s first visit to Bodh Gaya and Bodhi Tree, giving importance to Dhamma Yatra.

Major Rock Edict-IX

It attacked ceremonies performed at birth, illness, marriage and before setting out for a journey. A censure was passed against ceremonies observed by wives and mothers. Ashoka instead laid stress on the practice of Dhamma and usefulness of ceremonies.

Major Rock Edict-X

It denounced fame and glory, and reasserted the merit of following the policy of Dhamma.

Major Rock Edict-XI

It is a further explanation of Dhamma with emphasis on showing respect to elders, abstaining from killing animals, liberality towards friends and being humane towards slaves and servants.

Major Rock Edict-XII

Similar to MRE-VIII, it reflected the anxiety of Emperor Ashoka that he fled owing to conflict between competing sects and carried instructions for maintaining harmony.

It mentioned about Ithijika Mahamatta, the high-ranking official in charge of women’s welfare.

Major Rock Edict-XIII

It is of paramount importance in understanding the Ashokan policy of Dhamma. It prescribed conquests by Dhamma instead of war. This was a logical culmination of the thought process which began with the first MRE. This is Ashoka’s testament against war. It graphically depicted the tragedy of war.

This MRE was issued at the end of the Kalinga War bearing testimony to how Ashoka underwent a change in heart from an being aggressive and violent warrior to a preacher of peace and Dhamma.

It gave details of Magadha’s victory over Kalinga and mentioned Ashoka’s Dhamma Vijay over Greek kings Antiochus of Syria (Amtiyoko), Ptolemy of Egypt (Turamaye), Magas of Cyrene (Maka), Antigonus of Macedon (Amtikini), Alexander of Epirus (Alikasudaro). It also mentioned about Pandyas and Cholas in South India.

There is another MRE, the fourteenth. It entailed the purpose of rock edicts – to spread Dhamma and policies of the emperor.

PS: Ashoka put out his instructions through a series of edicts inscribed on rocks installed across his empire. These edicts are categorized by historians into five simpler groups:

-        Major Rock Edicts

-        Minor Rock Edicts

-        Separate Rock Edicts

-        Major Pillar Edicts

-        Minor Pillar Edicts

There are altogether 33 inscriptions that have been found in the edicts recovered/survived so far.

ASHOKA’S DHAMMA AND HIS STATE

Ashoka’s Dhamma was not simply a collection of lofty and feel-good phrases. He consciously adopted Dhamma as a matter of state policy.

It was a major departure from Arthashastra, the political treatise that formed the basis of kingship during Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the dynasty. In the Arthashastra, the king owed nothing to anyone. His only job was to rule the state efficiently.

But Ashoka’s Dhamma was a state policy. He declared that “all men are my children” and “whatever exertion I make, I strive only to discharge the debt that I owe to all living creatures”. It was totally a new and inspiring ideal of kingship.

Ashoka wanted to conquer the world through love and faith and hence he sent many missions to propagate Dhamma to even far flung places such as Egypt and Greece besides relatively nearby Sri Lanka.

The preparation of Dhamma included several measures for people’s welfare. Centres for medical treatment of men and animals/beasts were founded inside and outside the empire. Shady groves, wells fruit orchards and rest houses were laid out. This kind of charity work was a radically different attitude from the king of Arthashastra, who would not incur any expenses unless they brought more revenues in return.

Ashoka prohibited useless sacrifices and certain forms of gatherings which led to waste, and indiscipline and superstition. He recruited Dhamma Mahamattas for that purpose. They were to see to it that people of different sects were treated equally and fairly. Moreover, they were also asked to look after the welfare of prisoners. Many of the convicts who were kept in fetters after their sentence had expired were to be released. Those sentenced to death were to be given a grace for three days.

Ashoka launched Dhamma Yatra, righteous tours. He and his high-ranking officials were to tour the country in order to propagate Dhamma and establish direct contact with his subjects.

Ashoka renounced war and conquest by violence, and forbade killing of many animals. Ashoka himself set an example of vegetarianism by almost stopping consumption of meat in his royal household.

It was because of such attitudes and policies that modern writers like Kem called him “monk in a king’s garb”.

DHAMMA: INTERPRETATION

It has been suggested that it was the original Buddhist thought that was being preached by Ashoka as Dhamma, and later on, certain theological additions were made to Buddhism. This kind of thinking is based on Buddhist chronicles. But definitely, Ashoka did not favour Buddhism at the expense of other religious beliefs.

Ashoka’s creation of the institution of Dhamma Mahamatta indicates that Ashoka’s Dhamma was not to favour any particular religious doctrine. Had that been the case, there would not have been any need for such an official as Ashoka could have utilised the organisation of Sangha to propagate Dhamma.

Further, Ashoka wanted to promote tolerance and respect for all religious sects, and duty of the Dhamma Mahamattas included working for Brahmanas and Shramanas.

Some historians have suggested that Ashoka’s banning of sacrifices and the favour that he showed to Buddhists led to Brahmanical reaction, which, in turn, led to the decline of the Mauryan empire. Others believe that the stopping of wars and emphasis on non-violence crippled the military might of the empire. This led to the collapse of the empire, after the death of Ashoka.

However, Romila Thapar has shown that Ashoka’s Dhamma, apart from being a document of his humanness, was also an answer to the socio-political needs of the contemporary situation.

That it was not anti-Brahmanical is proven by the fact that respect for Brahmanas and Shramanas was an integral part of Ashoka’s Dhamma. His emphasis on non-violence did not blind him to the needs of the state. He warned the Atavikas (forest tribes) of using the military force of the empire if they did not mend their ways.

Ashoka’s ‘no to war’ policy came at a time when his empire had almost reached its natural boundaries. In the deep south, he had friendly ties with the Cholas and the Pandyas. Sri Lanka was an admiring ally. The policy of tolerance was a wise course of action in an ethnically diverse, religiously varied and class-divided society.

Ashoka’s empire was a conglomerate of diverse groups. There were farmers, pastoral nomads and hunter gatherers besides a burgeoning urban population. There were Greeks, Kamobjas and Bhojas, and hundreds of groups following divergent traditions.

In such a society and political composition, the policy of tolerance was the need of the hour. Ashoka tried to transcend the parochial cultural traditions by a broad set of ethical principles. It is, therefore, obvious that he was not establishing a new religion. He was simply trying to impress upon his society to guide along ethical and moral principles that suited his politics quite well.