The Aryan series | A primer on Early Vedic times, Rigvedic society, polity and economy

Photo: Sindhustan/Prabhash K Dutta

Prabhash K Dutta

The Rigved Samhita is the prime source of information about Early Rigvedic period that corresponds to roughly 1500-1000 BC. The Rigved Samhita comprises of 10 Mandals, of which Mandal II to VII are considered to be the oldest and belonging specifically to this period. Mandals I, VIII, IX and X are considered to be later additions to the Samhita. However, historians say even the earlier books/Mandals are not free from interpolations. They point to references to agriculture in Mandal-IV saying agriculture became a practice later in history.

GEOGRAPHICAL EXTENT

As per places mentioned in the Rigved and identified by historians, the geographical extent of the people of Rigvedic period included such areas as drained by the Indus and its western tributaries, and towards the east, their expanse was limited by the Yamuna and Ganga.

Within this area, the valleys of Indus, Saraswati and Drasavati as well as five Punjabi rivers seem to have formed the core area of Rigvedic people.

ECONOMY

Rigvedic economy appears to have been primarily pastoral. Cattle were very important in this period. Term ‘Gau’ is referred to as many as 176 times in the relevant Mandals. There have been prayers for ‘Pashu’, a term historians say referred to not only goats, sheep, horses etc but also men during those days.

The importance of cattle or gau in the Early Vedic Age could be sensed from the following words used in day-to-day businesses:

Gomat: It was used to denote a wealthy man. It literally means a person who possesses cows or cattle.

Gavishti: Literally meaning search for cattle or cows referred to battle. This indicates that gavishti referred to raids that were conducted considering legitimate to acquire cattle or other animals.

Gopati: It was another word for Raja. Literally, gopati means the lord or protector of cattle, cows.

Duhtir: It was the term for daughter. Literally, duhtir means somebody who milks the cow/cattle.

Godhuli: It was a measure of time in the evening. Literally, godhuli refers to the dust thrown in air by the hoofs of a herd of cattle being tended home by the herders. The dust would cloud the evening sky making the evening homecoming of animals a picturesque impact on the Rigvedic people. Hence, the time before the onset of darkness came to be called godhuli.

Gavyuti: It was a term for distance.

The exact relations of production in pastoral economy of Early Rigvedic times are not clear. It is possible that the animals were herded in common and it is likely that cattle were owned by a large patriarchal which gave rise to the concept of gotra (another word stamping the importance of gau in Rigvedic life).

However, the pastoral lands were under the control of the whole community and probably the cattle obtained in raids were distributed through assemblies such as the Gana and Parishad.

Nevertheless not all members of the community had equal access to such animals and it is likely that the leaders and close supporters in such raids received a larger share than others.

Cattle formed an important item of daan (gifts) given to priests commonly by the Raja, called the Rajanya and probably, it was a part of the presentations or tribute offered to the chief by the members of the clan, collectively called Vish.

Evidence regarding agriculture was much more limited and suggested its unimportance. Most of the references to agriculture belong to a later date. Apart from yava (barley), no other grains are mentioned.

Unlike cattle, lands or grains do not figure as objects of disputes. Land is also not mentioned as an article of donation in daanstutis (song praising the deed of donation). There are also no prayers to obtain lands and chiefs are not expected to protect land.

Early Vedic period did not use iron technology.

Fire was used to burn down the forest cover. Shifting agriculture was practised.

The region received low rainfall and all the rivers mentioned in the Rigved are known to change their courses frequently.

The tools used for agricultural operations were fairly simple. These included:

Langala or Sira – plough

Phala (probably of wood) – ploughshare

Khanitra – hoe

Datra – sickle

Parasu – axe

Evidence of pastoralism as well as shifting cultivation suggest that the people of the Rigvedic culture were either nomadic or semi-nomadic.

Individual land ownership was virtually unknown. It seems land was held in common, although plots were periodically allotted to large patrilineal family. Cultivation appears to have been undertaken by the member of the family, which functioned as a unit. There is no reference to hired labourers or slaves being engaged in agriculture.

References to craft specialists in the Rigved are relatively sparse. The groups mentioned include leather workers, wheel makers, smiths and potters. None of these groups was considered to be of low or lower status. They were rendering important services to society and thus earned respect and reputation.

In the case of pottery, the basic techniques used were similar to those of the Harappans. Use of colours in pottery making was also the same – black or red. But the forms of vessels and use of decorations on them changed. The popular forms or shapes were urns, carinated vessel and footed vases. Popular decorations included stars, rings, dots and mythical peacocks and bulls.

Weaving appears to have been a domestic craft, under the control of women in the household. Wool obtained from sheep was possibly the raw material. There are no references to cotton in the Rigved. The Harappan people cultivated cotton in the same region in the gone by centuries.

Probably, barter system was the medium of trade.

The Early Vedic economic system has been characterised as a ‘gift economy’. Such exchange of gifts operated at a number of levels. In the first place, the booty obtained through warfare was redistributed. Apart from cattle, this might have included horses, women, slaves, and possibly at a later stage, cultivated land.

Such a distribution took place in assemblies such as the Vidhath or the Gana. It probably ensured that the Rajanya secured the continued support of the Vish, on one hand, and the priestly class on the other. The Vish supplied militia to ruler. The priestly class performed prayers and sacrifices that ostensibly ensured divine support to and gave legitimisation of Rajanya’s right to rule.

Besides the distribution of war booty, there was Bali, collection or donation or contribution from the Vish of one’s own Jana, and also from the hostile people who had been subjugated to the king. In the former’s case, it appears to have been voluntary and in the nature of presentation. The Vish probably brought Bali as means of pleasing the Rajan possibly on occasions of sacrifices and feats.

Bali in the later literature is regarded as tax. The constituents of Bali might have included cattle, dairy products and grains. Bali from hostile but subjugated people might have included metal or metal objects.

A part of the Bali constituted a source of income for the Rajan. Another part was used in sacrificial offerings Another portion was to provide communal feasts which accompanied sacrifices and a part distributed to priests either as alkaline or dana. The last was done by the Rajan to acquire prestige as is evident from daanastutis. Obviously, the distribution associated with Bali was asymmetrical.

SOCIETY

The Early Vedic society was in many respects egalitarian. It was mostly a tribal society. The Early Vedic society was not divided on caste lines. The tribe was referred to as the Jana, the largest unit.

Some of the tribes fought in the battle of the Ten Kings. The ten tribes who fought in the battle included: the Bharatas, the Purus, the Vadus, the Druhyus, the Anus and the Turvasus. The office of Rajan was not hereditary as he was chosen by and from among the clansmen. It is not clear whether women had a say in the selection of the Rajan.

The four-fold varna system was virtually absent in the Early Vedic age. There are only 14 references to Brahmanas, nine to Kshatriyas and just one to Shudra. Reference to Shudra comes in the context of Purushasukta – about the cosmic man.

The basic social unit was a patriarchal family called Kula. It was probably also the basic unit of production and consumption.

Child marriage was unknown.

There are occasional references to hostile groups such as Dasa, Dasyus and Panis. Dasa later became a reference to slaves. But in the Rig Vedic or Early Vedic period, Dasa and Dasyus are described as well-to-do people possessing cattle. They lived in fortified settlements. They were dark complexioned, snub nosed and worshippers of phallus. Some interpret this as reference to pre-Vedic Indians.

Panis were rich in cattle and treasure, according to Rig Vedic references.

They did not practice sacrifices and regarded as hostile people. These groups fought and made friends with another from time-to-time. One cannot regard them as separate linguist or racial groups on the basis of available Rig Vedic evidence.

The most famous chief mentioned in the Rig Veda is Sudasa, who led the Bharata tribe in the Battle of Ten Kings. The battle was fought over the division of water of the Ravi. His very name indicates the connection with the Dasas.

POLITY

The tribal polity was not completely egalitarian. A division is found in the Rigved itself between the Rajanya – those who led the Vish in wars were credited to be of senior lineage, and the rest of the clansmen, the Vish – who were considered to be of junior lineage.

The Purohita gained a special status in that society. They significance grew with the increase in the incidences of fights and conflicts as yajnas or sacrifices also became important. And, in the later period, they attained and assumed a superior position compared to other clan members.

The Rajan assumed importance due to wars that also contributed to sharper division between the senior and junior lineages in the Vish. At what point of time, these distinction became apparent is difficult to say but the tenth Mandala of the Rigved contains Purushasukta – the hymns that state that Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra sprang separately from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the cosmic man (Purusha) respectively. 

These terms later signified the four broad castes of society. In the later Vedic texts, the superior Rajanya groups assumed the status of Kshatriya – a separate varna in itself.

Tribal assemblies, for example, Gana, Vidhatha, Sabha and Samiti are mentioned in the Rigved. Sabha might have been the council of select clan members, while the Samiti was the general tribal assembly, comprising the whole clan. 

These assemblies performed the functions of the government and were also involved in the selection of the Rajan from among the clansmen. Thus, they kept the powers of the Rajan and Rajanya in check. However, we do not find well-defined political hierarchy in the Early Vedic setup.

RELIGION

Rigvedic people venerated natural forces such as wind, water, rain, thunder, fire etc around them as gods. There were only a few female deities who were venerated.

Indra

He was the god of strength. He was invoked to destroy the enemy. Indra was the god of thunder and rain, and could not be vanquished. The concept of the tribal chief found represented in the character of Indra.

Agni

Next important god was Agni. He was the god of fire. Agni was considered to be an intermediary between heaven and the earth. Marriages were solemnised in his presence. The practice still predominantly continues among Indians. The purifying nature of fire was symbolised by Agni. It was thought that the offerings to Agni were carried to the gods in the form of smoke.

Varuna

He was personified water. He was the upholder of the natural order of the universe.

Yama

He as the god of death. He had an important place in the Early Rig Vedic religious belief.

Ashwins

They were the twin-gods of heaven.

Dyaus was the god of sky.

Mitra was the god of light.

Prajanya was a rain deity (inferior to Indra).

Prithvi was the goddess of earth.

Aditi was the mother goddess.

Besides these gods and goddesses, prayers were addressed to a host of other celestial beings such as Gandharvas, Apsaras and Maruts.

An intimate personal relationship was thought to be existing between a Vedic Aryan and the gods he or she worshipped. Religions was not based on magic or ritual formulae, rather it stressed direct communication with the gods through sacrifices and hymns. Priests were considered merely assistants in proper performance of the sacrifices. This means an accomplished person could sing the hymns himself or herself and propitiate the gods.

The Vedic religion was sacrificial in nature. It was characteristic of a pastoral society where animal sacrifice was common. It is consistent with the need of the Rigvedic society that required a sustainable system to get rid of older animals which were not economically viable, helpful or useful. 

Sacrifices or yajnas were performed to invoke the gods seeking bestowing of boons from them. The boons sought were not about a place in the heaven but victory in battles, acquisition of cattle, begetting sons or progeny etc.

In other words, the sacrifices were performed with the aim of securing material gains. Gods were neither worshipped for spiritual uplift of people nor for any other abstract philosophical concept. The Vedic religion reflected thus the patriarchal and pastoral society which was materialistic in perspective.

The Rigved offers no consistent theory regarding life after death. The dead dwelt in the realm of Yama. The dead were either buried or cremated.

PS. I will follow this up with a debate on the Aryan question.