Factors of Deforestation in India

Fig Tree. (Photo: MOEF GOI)

India has about 19 per cent of its area under forest while ecologically it should have had not less than 33 per cent of land under forest cover.

Although India is characterised by various types of forests but it is dwindling over a couple of centuries. Recent efforts at afforestation are but an aberration in the general trend of decades.

On an average 1.5 lakh hectare forest was lost every year between 1951 and 1980. The rate of deforestation between 1980 and 1990 was at 55,000 hectare a year while between 1990 and 1995, it stood at 4,500 hectare of 450 sq km.

Recently the rate of deforestation has declined due to two factors –

Some strong punitive measures have been taken to check deforestation.

Due to afforestation programmes, the scale of deforestation has been compensated a bit. In 1996, newly afforested area was equal in expanse to deforested area. Even the afforestation is taking place but the real acreage has been decreasing.

Deforestation is the result of a number of factors:

1   

      Agricultural progress – Two types of agricultural practices have been prevalent in India for long. These are shifting agriculture and plantation agriculture. A substantial portion of Indian population has lived in and near forests for centuries. They largely depended on gathering of forest produce to sustain their livelihood.

Now those who had gathering economy have shifted to a more settled economy. The shift in their economic practices necessitated cutting of forests. These people practiced shifting agriculture, which requires fresh and virgin land every few years.

Shifting agriculture proved to be a major factor causing wide-scale deforestation. Finally, this practice was declared illegal with laws like Jhoom Farming Prevention Act, 1976. Though, the practice continued for few more decades as it took lots of persuasion and in sensitizing people living in those areas about the legal and environmental consequences of shifting agriculture.

The effectiveness of the laws is not surmised but it has definitely contributed in slowing down the rate of deforestation. Tribal population growth rate has been very high. Nagaland has showed highest population growth rate for long. Swelling tribal population and need for more dwelling units in their homeland put more and more pressure on forest land which saw vanishing trees.

In the areas where plantation form of agriculture is practiced, deforestation has not much increased in last few decades. Sustained efforts by various governments have ensured that after 1980, plantation area is not increased by cutting down the forests.

After the World War I, tea and other crops brought more areas under plantation acreage in India. In Himachal Pradesh, open forest areas were given to tea plantation even till 1985-86. But, this practice has almost stopped completely.

2.       Fuel wood pressure – A 2015 report by Indiaspend.com said that more than 67 per cent rural households in India depended on firewood or wood chips. It also stated that over 95 per cent rural households in six states – Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal still used traditional fuel such as firewood, dung cakes and agricultural waste for cooking.

According to the Access to Clean Cooking Energy and Electricity Survey of States (ACCESS), only 14 per cent households in rural areas across six states surveyed used biogas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), electricity or natural gas as their primary source for cooking.

Another IndiaSpend report said that the use of LPG increased 7.5 times between 1993-94 and 2011-12 in rural areas across India. About 2 per cent rural households used LPG in 1993-94 while about 15 per cent households used LPG in 2011-12.

This overdependence of vast majority of rural India has caused massive cutting of trees from forests – big and small. Many state governments have passed laws to declare cutting of trees for fuel illegal e.g. in Kerala, Garhwal area of Uttarakhand, most of northeastern states and states along Western Ghats.

3.       Resource utilisation pressure – Various industries and economic activities depend on utilisation of forest resources. Forest products are used and trees cut for paper and pulp industry, woodcraft, chemical and drug industries.

The pressure from woodcraft industry is particularly huge in Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir. Wooden packing of fruits worked like an industry in itself till 1996 in the country. It was particularly taking toll on forests in the northeast and Himalayan states. The practice has become less intensive in recent years.

Tribal subsistence economy also promotes destruction of forests for resource purposes but they have not been able to make economically competitive use of forests.

The loss is much more in comparison to economic gain. The economic gains from forest dependent industries are short-term while the loss is permanent.

4.       Livestock pressure – Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir are among the states which have witnessed serious deforestation on account of livestock pressure. It has caused indirect deforestation.

Trans-Himalayan tribes, as part of their traditional practice, take their livestock towards higher altitudes for grazing purposes during spring. Tall grasses could hardly emerge in the region.

Lack of tall grasses results in an ecological situation where horizon A of the soil is not properly developed. In that situation, the vegetation growth becomes scanty.

Continuous grazing on newly emerged grassy surface causes uprooting of grass which leads to soil erosion reducing the capacity of the soil surface to hold running or rainy water. This leads to deterioration of ground water table which ultimately causes decay of tree vegetation in the region.

5.       Development pressure – River valley projects have caused massive deforestation in India. About 4,97,000 hectare or 4,970 sq km forest was lost to river valley projects in the Himalayan region between 1952 and 1977.

Besides, about 1,27,000 hectare of forest was lost in the Himalayan region for large scale industries and another 57,000 hectare was lost to road construction in the same zone. Deforestation has continued for mining, railways, roadways, airports and helipads in the hilly regions.

Chhotanagpur region of Jharkhand has witnessed massive deforestation due to developmental pressure.

6.       Wild fires – Among other factors for deforestation, wild fires are major contributor. High inflammability of trees – especially the old ones - is one big reason for loss of forest. Collision of trees, branches due to high wind speed during hot summers causes huge wild fires in forests. Western Ghats have witnessed several such fires.

Human errors – forced and unforced, both – are also responsible for forest fires. This is a major cause for destruction of forests in tribal dominated areas. Throwing of untrashed beedis by tribals or cigarettes by tourists and other visitors has led to many wild fires.

It is suspected that such fires were deliberately caused by some people with vested interests. In some cases, terrorists and insurgents have created fires in forests to escape security forces or to serve their own purposes.

1993-94 was a bad year for forests. According to the Forest and Environment Ministry’s data 1,428 incidents of wild fires were reported from Maharashtra in 1993, 644 forest fires in Gujarat, 600 in Himachal Pradesh, 461 in Madhya Pradesh, 418 in Jammu and Kashmir, 258 in Uttar Pradesh, 112 in Kerala and 90 in Tamil Nadu.

 In April-May, 2016 forests of Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh kept burning for several weeks. Some 1,600 incidents of fires were reported during the period. Air Force helicopters were pressed into use but did not help much to contain the fire. Finally, heavy rain on May 3 slowed down the fire, which went off after raging for few more days. About 4,048 hectare forest was lost to these fires.

7.        Illegal cutting of trees –Kerala is facing big problem due to cutting of trees on large scale. Problem is not less alarming in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir and the northeastern states. Those who get the contracts for cutting of some trees, are suspecting to be the ones who have ended up damaging the forest the most by overcutting.

8.      Tree cutting by tribals – People living in the forest areas are generally those belonging to tribal groups of the Indian population. They have been cutting trees for various kinds of usage. Though, traditionally, such groups have been very forest-friendly but their age practices have become corrupt. Many have shed the old practice of planting more trees in their neighbourhood while continue to believe that cutting trees from forest is their inherited right.

9.       Population growth – Population growth rate in the hilly regions has been high. So, population pressure has caused damage to forests. Immigration in hilly regions is another reason contributing to population pressure on forests of such areas.

Resource Importance of Forests of India

Monkey sitting on the boundary separatist forest area from the city area in Haridwar. (Poor photography by Prabhash K Dutta)

India is among a few countries where all types of vegetation are found. Total enlisted tree species is about 5,000 in India. An estimated number of vegetation plant species is 15,000. Of the 500 tree species, only about 500 types are used – both directly and indirectly - for economic purposes in India. 

A large number of tree species is economically unused and their economic potential is untapped. They are categorised as wild trees. India’s forest resource is vast and diverse. Its share in nation’s GDP is about 4.5 per cent (1999). This shows the backwardness in the context of resource utilisation.

In 1951, forest production in terms of money was Rs 19 crore. In 1992, resource utilisation of forest was valued at Rs 3,800 crore. After 1992, India’s timber production has made rapid growth. India is the fourth (1999) largest timber producer of the world.

Indonesia is the leading producer of timber followed by Brazil and Malaysia. India’s forest-based economy is making progress but even then it is meager. Almost all types of vegetation in India have some economic importance but only a portion is used for economic purposes. (update – United States is the leading producer, followed by India now)

Equatorial forest has bright prospects in economy especially in respect of developing rubber and oil palm plantation. Presently rubber plantation is developed at large scale. India is the fifth largest rubber producer in the world.

In the Northeast India, rubber plantation is being developed under tribal community development schemes. Under monsoonal forest coverage, several social groups of India depend on forest resources. Tribal community’s economy is based on forest.

Vegetation under teak, sal, kendu and khair are put to direct use by tribal population. The largest acreage of teak is found in Madhya Pradesh. Teak is also the costliest tropical tree. Largest exporters and producers of teak, sal and kendu are Myanmar, Vietnam and Malaysia. Teak and sal are used in housing, furniture, railways (also in making sleeper, general bogie seats earlier) and boat making.

Sal is mainly grown in South Asia. Kendu leaves are used in Bidi industry. Large number of tribal communities of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Jharkhand and West Bengal depend on this resource for their livelihood.

Khair’s largest acreage is found in Bihar (including Jharkhand) (1999 figure). It is commonly used as betel leaves in Bihar. Khair also has medicinal value.

Tribal communities in this part of the world are traditionally dependent on various kinds of wood for making umbrella, basket, toys and decorative goods. These items have been sold by the tribals in the local markets for centuries.

Under Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP), which is a poverty eradication programme, tribal communities are provided proper training to make better use of leaves of trees like sal and a structured market is made available to them.

In Karnataka, there has been greater use of sandalwood in woodcraft industry where decorative goods are prepared. Sandalwood is used in chemical industry. Wood pieces are also used in various religious pursuits.

Bamboo and savai grass are two other monsoon forest products which are used in paper industry. Over 70 per cent of raw materials of paper industry in India come from bamboo and 15 per cent from savai grass. Thus, 85 per cent (1999 figures) of the raw materials of the paper industry come from monsoonal forest.

There has been indirect importance of forest. Mulberry species are used for domestication of silk worm or cocoon. This is, thus, possible in monsoon forest. Domestication of lac bugs for lac industry is done on mulberry trees. Mainly acacia species are used for lac bug domestication. Even the banyan and peepal trees are used for domestication of lac bugs.

Lac bugs cannot grow where temperature is above 20 degree Celsius and below 12 degree Celsius. So, the conditions are most suitable in south Bihar and Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Eastern Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and plateau regions of West Bengal and Karnataka.

Silk worm industry is dependent on deciduous forest. Silk worm industry is found even in Manipur, Assam and Meghalaya. Recently, silk worm domestication is emerging in Kashmir Valley. Mulberry plant is emerging in the Valley region. Among the Indian states, Karnataka is the largest producer of raw silk and silk textile.

China is the world leader in silk production and silk textile followed by India and Japan. In the field of artificial silk, Italy is the largest producer.

Lac production is highest in united Bihar. (1999). The National Research Lac Institute is situated at Namkum near Ranchi. It is the largest collecting and processing centre of lac. India is the largest exporter of lac in the world. India exports 52 per cent of world trade.

Himalayan forest is of high economic value. Siwalik Himalaya is more important economically. Teak, sal, bamboo and savai grass are of more economic use. Siwalik Himalayas is dense in comparison to other Himalayan forests.

Another advantage is that it is of low altitude, so its economic use is possible. In fact, forest-based economy has developed in Siwalik Himalaya region especially in Garhwal area of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir. In these regions, wood craft industry is developed.

Lesser Himalaya and the lower slope of the Greater Himalaya are characterised by temperate and taiga woods. They are of economic use. Deodar covers 5.80 lakh square kilometers and largest acreage is found in Jammu and Kashmir. Pine acreage in Jammu and Kashmir is about 7,380 sq km. (all figures to be verified).

Both deodar and pine are used in paper and woodcraft industries. Other species of economic use are silver fur, blue pine and spruce. Spruce is used in paper industry. Greater and Lesser Himalayas forest resources are nearly unused and they have tremendous prospects of development. Sustainable development strategy may help in the proper utilisation of Himalayan forest.

Coastal forest in India is also of great economic value. Only mangrove is not of much economic use. Three important tree species – coconut, palm and cane are of much value.

India is the largest producer of coconut. What is required is to develop coconut-based industries. Coir-based, copra-based industries should also be developed using raw materials from coconut forest.

In Tamil Nadu, there is tremendous prospect to develop palm oil industry. Cane is used for making fishing boats.

India’s sub-tropical and arid regions’ vegetation types are yet to be properly surveyed from the resource point of view but cactus species are being recognized as the potential raw material for various chemical and drug industries.

Date palm is another prospective vegetation for economic use. Iraq and Iran produce sugar from date palm. Date palm vegetation may be developed as a raw material for sugar industry.

Acacia has also chemical and drug related significance. They may be used for domestication of new 

varieties of lac bugs. They are plants of quick growth and can be used for fuel (where LPG transportability is difficult for rough and undulating terrain) and fodder purposes.

It is obvious that the forest resource of India keeps bright prospect for future development. Presently, it is in under-developed situation.  It may be developed as an alternative economy for tribal and rural people. Several raw materials may be collected from the forest. What is required is to prepare a sustainable national policy for the development of forest resources.

Distribution of Forests in India

Forests are important for all forms of lives. (Photo: Prabhash K Dutta | New Delhi)

Total forest area in India is 64.01 million hectares – about 19 per cent of Indian territory (1999 figure).

Dense forest - 11 per cent

Open forest – 8 per cent. Grazing is permitted in an open forest.

Mangrove forest – 0.15 per cent

Indian forest is only 1.85 per cent of the total forest cover of the world. India has about 2.4 per cent of the total area and over 16 per cent of world’s population.

Under the existing policy of the government, 33 per cent of India should be under forest cover. Even the law of 33 per cent forest cover is not application in all parts of the country. Ideally, 60 per cent of the mountainous and plateau regions should be under forest cover while 20 per cent of the plain regions should have forest cover.

Distribution of forest in India is highly uneven. Maximum forest coverage is found in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. As per 1994, 92 per cent of the total area in Andaman and Nicobar Islands was under the forest cover.

Mizoram had 88.7 per cent, Nagaland 86.5 per cent, Arunachal Pradesh 82 per cent, Manipur 78.9 per cent and Meghalaya had 70.3 per cent forest cover. (Data till 1999) These are the mountainous and hilly states and have above 60 per cent of area under forest cover.

At the other hand, forest coverage is below the required 60 per cent despite being mountainous regions. Examples are two-third of Tripura is mountainous region but has corresponding forest cover is only 52 .8 per cent. In the case of Sikkim, the entire state is mountainous but the forest cover is only 44.4 per cent.

Other states and union territories where forest cover is above national average are as follows:

Dadar and Nagar Haveli – 42 per cent

Goa + Daman and Diu – 36.2 per cent

Assam – 31.2 per cent

Madhya Pradesh + Chhattisgarh – 30.5 per cent

Odisha – 30.3 per cent

Kerala – 26.5 per cent

Himachal Pradesh – 23.7 per cent

There are six states where the forest cover is below the national average but above 10 per cent. These states are as follows:

Andhra Pradesh + Telangana – 17.2 per cent

Karnataka – 16.9 per cent

Bihar + Jharkhand – 15.3 per cent

Maharashtra – 14.3 per cent

Tamil Nadu – 13.6 per cent

Uttar Pradesh – 11.5 per cent

Remaining states and union territories have less than 10 per cent forest cover. These states’ forest cover is given below:

West Bengal – 9.2 per cent

Jammu and Kashmir – 9.2 per cent

Gujarat – 6.1 per cent

Chandigarh – 4.4 per cent

Rajasthan - 3.8 per cent

Punjab - 2.7 per cent

Delhi – 1.5 per cent

Haryana – 1.2 per cent

Going by the forest cover, Northwest India can easily be called the Yellow Region of the country. Punjab and Haryana are almost treeless states.

There has been intra-regional variation in the distribution of forest. Such variation is more prominent in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh have regions of different topography and consequently the plain areas have very low percentage of forest cover, very much like states of lower average state.

Many districts of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh where forest is below one per cent but Chhotanagpur of Jharkhand and Uttarakhand have higher forest cover. When Jharkhand was part of Bihar then it was a huge contrast to compare the forest cover of Chhotanagpur region and the rest of united Bihar.

While united Bihar’s average forest cover was 15.3 per cent while that of Chhotanagpur was 27 per cent. Same was the case in united Uttar Pradesh, which had an average forest cover of 11.5 per cent with eastern districts bordering Bihar had less than one per cent while Garhwal district had over 40 per cent of forest cover.

It is obvious that the distribution is characterised by inter-regional and intra-regional variations.

Nature of the Indian Constitution

Though the members of the Drafting Committee of the Constituent Assembly called the Indian Constitution federal, however it is nowhere mentioned in the Constitution document itself, some jurists dispute this title. The western scholars generally take the US Constitution as a role model of the federal constitution and exclude those constitutions, which don‘t confirm to it from the nomenclature of federalism. But now, it is increasingly realized that any assumption of such a typology is fallacious and it is generally agreed that the question whether a state is unitary or federal is one of degrees and whether it is a federation or not depends upon the number of federal features it possesses.

What is a federation?

It is a group of regions or states/ units with a central government or a federal government. A federation has a well established dual polity or dual form of government, i.e. the field of government is divided between the federal and the state governments which are not subordinate# to one another, but co-ordinate and are independent within their own spheres. Therefore, the existence of co-ordinate authorities independent of each other is the gist of the federal principle.

Essential characteristics of federation 

1. Distribution of powers: An essential feature of a federal constitution is the distribution of powers between the central government and the governments of the several units that constitute the federation.
2. Supremacy of the constitution: The constitution is binding on the federal and the provincial governments. The central government and the state governments derive their powers from the Constitution. Also, neither of the two types of governments should be in a position to override the provisions of the constitution related to the powers and status enjoyed by the other.
3. Written Constitution: The constitution must be a written one. This is basically to avoid any doubt about the supremacy of the constitution as well as to clearly demarcate the powers between the central and the provincial governments.
4. Rigidity of the Constitution: This feature is a corollary to the supremacy of the constitution. Rigidity does not mean unamendability but simply means the power of amending the Constitution, especially those regulating the status and powers of the federal and the provincial governments, should not be confined exclusively either to the federal or the provincial governments.
5. Authority of the Courts: There must be an authority that can prevent the federal and provincial governments from encroaching upon each other’s powers. Secondly, there should be a final supreme court which should not be dependent upon the federal or provincial governments and should have the last word in the matters involving constitutional affairs.

The Indian Situation 

A perusal of the provisions of the Indian Constitution reveals that the political system introduced by it possesses all the aforesaid essentials of a federal polity.

The Indian Constitution establishes a dual polity with Union at the Centre and the States at the periphery, each enjoying powers clearly demarcated by the Constitution. The Constitution is written and supreme, with enough power to declare enactments in excess of the powers of the Union or State Legislatues as ultra vires. This has been firmly established after the Keshavananda Bharti case in 1973. 

Moreover, no amendment making any change in the status or powers of the centre and the States is possible without the participation of the States (under Article 368). Finally, the Supreme Court is the apex authority to interpret th Constitution of India as well as decide disputes arising out of Centre-State relations.

Even though all the five essential characteristics are present in the Indian Constitution, under certain circumstances, the Constitution empowers the Centre to interfere in the matters of the States, which places the States in a subordinate position. This violates the federal principle.

Provisions in the Indian Constitution which are not strictly federal in character 

The question of the extent of federalism is a different matter and in this regard the Constitution of India has certain distinctive features having a bias towards the Centre. The political system of a country is by and large, the outcome of the circumstances which certainly differ from one country to another. 

The following are the provisions in the Indian Constitution which are not strictly federal in character: 

1. In the USA and Australia, the states have their own constitutions which are as powerful as the federal constitution, but in India there are no separate Constitution for the member States with the State of Jammu & Kashmir being an exception.
2. India follows the principle of uniform and single citizenship, but in the USA and Australia, double citizenship is followed.
3. In the USA, it is not possible for the federal government to unilaterally change the territorial extent of a State but in India, Parliament can do so even without the consent of the State concerned. Thus, the States in India do not enjoy the right to territorial integrity.
4. If the President declares national emergency for the whole or a part of India under Article 352, Parliament can make laws on subjects, which are otherwise, exclusively under the State List. Parliament can give directions to the States on the manner in which o exercise their executive authority in matters within their charge. The financial provisions can also be suspended. Thus, in one stroke, the Indian federation acquires a unitary character. However, such a situation is not possible in other federal constitutions.
5. The Schedule VII of the Indian constitution distributes the legislative subjects on which the Parliament and the State legislatures can enact laws under three lists: Union, State and Concurrent. The Union List contains 99 subjects over which Parliament has exclusive control, while the State List contains only 61 subjects over which the state legislatures have control. Moreover, the most important subjects, except only one i.e. the state tax are under the Union List. 
   
   Further, in the event of a conflict between the Union and the State laws on the Concurrent subjects, the latter must give way to the former to the extent of such contradiction. Furthermore, the Residuary power, i.e. the power to enact laws on subjects not falling under any o f the three Lists lies with the Centre (Canadian model) and not with the States, as is the case in USA and Australia.
6. Parliament has the exclusive authority to make laws on the 99 subjects of the Union List, but the States do not have such an exclusive rights over the State List. Under certain circumstances and situations, Parliament can legislate on subjects of State List. There are five such situations

·         Under Article 249, if the Rajya Sabha passes a resolution with not less than 2/3^rd majority, authorizing Parliament to make laws on any State subject on the ground that it is expedient or necessary in the national interest, Parliament can legislate over that subject. Such laws shall be in force for only one year and can be continuously extended any number of times, but for not more than one year at a time.

·        Under Article 250, if national emergency is declared under Article 352, Parliament has the right to make laws with respect to all the 61 State subjects automatically, i.e. the State List is transformed into the Concurrent List.

·      Under Article 252, if the Legislatures of two or more States request Parliament to legislate on a particular State subject, Parliament can do so. However, such legislation can be amended or repealed only by Parliament.

·      Under Article 253, Parliament can make laws even on State List to comply with the international agreements to which India is a party. The States can not oppose such a move.

·   Under Article 356, if President’s rule is imposed in a State, the powers of the Legislature of that State become exercisable by or under the authority of Parliament. This gives Parliament full powers to legislate on any matter introduced in the State List.

7. Under Article 155, the Governor of a State is appointed by the President and the former is not responsible to the State Legislature. Thus indirectly, the Centre enjoys control over the State through the appointment of the Governor.
8. If financial emergency is declared by the President under Article 360 on the ground that the financial stability or credibility of India or any of its units is threatened, all the Money Bills passed by the State Legislatures during the period of financial emergency are also subject to the control of the Centre.
9. Under Article 256, the Centre can give administrative directions to the States which are binding on the latter. Along with directions, the Constitution also provides measures to be adopted by the Centre to ensure such compliance.
10. under Article 312, the All India Services officials- IAS, IPS and IFS (forest)- are appointed by the Centre, but are paid and controlled by the State. However, in case of any irregularities by the officer, States cannot initiate any disciplinary action except suspending her and making a non-binding recommendation to the Centre for shifting of the cadre of the official or termination of the official.
11.  Judges of the High Courts are appointed by the President in consultation with the Governors under Article 217 and the States do not play any role in this.

Thus, apart from certain provisions biased towards the Union, the Constitution of India, in normal times is framed to work as a federal system. But, in times of war and other emergencies, it is designed to work as though it were unitary. The federal constitutions of the US and Australia, which are placed in a tight mould of federalism can not change their form. They can never be unitary as per the provisions of the Constitution. But, the Indian Constitution is a flexible form of federation- a federation of its own kind. That is why Indian federation is called federation sui generis. 

The logic of framing of such a constitution lies in the typical historical legacy of India and the immediate incidents happening in India around the time the Constitution was being worked upon. Historically, India has been diverse in its composition and at times diversity has led to centrifugal political tendency. To prevent emergence of another such tendency in the country and to deal with it if it actually emerged somehow to keep the country and its units together the unitary bias was required in the Constitution of India.

Secondly, the nation had seen partition on an extremely unscientific logic, which defies India’s mainstream politics and its historical progress. Division of the country on the basis of religion was a dangerous sign for a diverse nation like India, where faith had remained a matter of personal belief. To prevent any such occurrence on the basis of religion, language or any other socio-cultural attributes in any particular region of the country and in the event of such an occurrence, the need for a unitary authority was considered necessary. Hence the diversion from so-called true federalism or bias towards the Union in terms of distribution of powers in times of extra-ordinary situations. 

Differences between a federation and a confederation 

1. Federation is a close legal association between two or more units while confederation is a loose association of two or more units.
2. In a federation, the units generally do not have the right to secede, as in India and Pakistan, but in case of a confederation, the states always enjoy the right to secede, as in present CIS and erstwhile USSR.
3. A federation is sovereign body while in a confederation, the units or states are sovereign.
4. In federation, there is a legal relation between the federation and its people but in confederation the people are citizens of the respective units of confederation.

Indian Constitution- the beginning

A constitution is a document of people’s faith and aspirations that has a special legal sanctity. It is the fundamental law of a country. There are various forms of government prevalent across the world. The philosophy embodied in a nation’s constitution determines the kind of government present there.

The idea of constitutionalism suggests ways and means to work out a governmental form, which exercises power and ensures at the same time, individual freedom and liberty.

Moreover, these government institutions are essential for the smooth functioning of society. But, the power of the state should not be absolute.

Constitutionalism suggests a way for reconciling the power of the state with individual liberty, by presenting the principles of organizing the state.

The constitution outlines the vision of the state and is its most important document. It is an expression of faith and hopes that people have from the state and promises that they wish to make for the future.

A constitution ensures certain rights to its citizens as well as defines their duties, e.g. Part III of the Indian Constitution.

Is Constitution Static?

A constitution is an extension of the philosophical and organization frameworks into the future.

But a state has to face the challenges of changing social, economic and political conditions in society.

All living constitutions provide for procedures for introducing changes in them by means of amendments. So, the constitution is not static.

Written and unwritten constitutions: Constitutions of most countries came into existence as a result of a conscious decision to have such a document. There are written constitutions, which provide institutional arrangements and procedures. But, the laws and institutions of British Constitution have gradually evolved over the centuries. The British Constitution is unwritten constitution. It comprises constitutional conventions that act as precedents for the working of institutions and other documents such as the statutes and Acts of Parliament. Here the Parliament is supreme, unlike the countries which have adopted a written Constitution, where the Constitution is supreme.

In Britain, any change in the Constitution is possible by means of laws passed by Parliament. There is no distinction between an ordinary law and a constitutional law. This is an example of the most flexible constitution.

FRAMING OF THE CONSTITUTION

The Indian Constitution was framed and adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India. As per the Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946, the Constituent Assembly was set up in November, 1946. It was not a sovereign body since it had to work within the limits imposed by the Cabinet Mission. After the passage of the India Independence Act of 1947, granting independence to India, the sovereign character of the Constituent Assembly was established per se. 

However, this could still not be technically considered sovereign because it was not elected by the populace of India as part of its decision making, which could only begin in 1951/2 when the nation voted for the first time to decide its own future. But, by then the Constitution had been fully adopted and the elections were also held in accordance with the procedures laid down in the same Constitution. But, the Constituent Assembly got its validity and hence legality considering the fact that the leaders of the body were those who had genuine support of the masses, as was evidenced during the first general and assembly elections across the length and breadth of the country. 

Technically speaking the Constituent Assembly could be called quasi-sovereign, but that was the most suitable possibility for the an emerging nation, which was yet to fully understand the concept and functionality of the modern nation-state.

Members of the Constituent Assembly were elected indirectly by the Provincial Assemblies in the ratio of one member per one million population. There were a total of 389 members in the Constituent Assembly, of which 296 seats were elected by the members of the Provincial Assemblies and the rest were nominated by the Princely States. The first meeting of the Constituent Assembly was held on 9^th December, 1946 with Sachidanand Sinha elected as its interim president. Later, Dr Rajendra Prasad was elected as the President of the Constituent Assembly.

The Constituent Assembly formed thirteen important committees for framing the Constitution. The Drafting Committee was headed by Dr BR Ambedkar and the draft constitution was published in January 1948. The Constituent Assembly discussed the draft and finally adopted the Constitution on 26^th November 1949 with some of the provisions taking effect immediately. The Constitution was implemented and made fully operational on 26^th January, 1950.

PALEOLITHIC AGE

Paleolithic Age roughly corresponds with the geological stratographic age, Pleistocene. It was spread over the Indian sub-continent between two lakh fifty thousand to one lakh BC. Paleolithic Age is divided into three phases on the basis of the types of stone tools and implements and techniques used to make them:

1. Lower Paleolithic Age: 2.5 to 1.0 Lakh BC

2. Middle Paleolithic Age: 1.0 lakh to 40 thousand BC

3. Upper Paleolithic Age: 40 thousand to 10 thousand BC

Following are the sources to know about the Paleolithic man:

1. Old river course

2. Water bodies: Stationary water bodies

3. Tools recovered from river basins and other places

4. Paleolithic fossils

5. Sketches/ lines drawn on the walls of the caves

Implements or tools of the Paleolithic Age are as follows:

· All the implements and tools of the Paleolithic age were made of stones only

· On the basis of the quality of stones, these implements can be divided into three types:

1. Quartzite

2. Chalcedonic

3. Sandstone

· All of them were hard stone and could not have been broken into smaller fragments for the purpose of tool making. That is why the tools of Paleolithic age were larger in shape and size.

· On the basis of their shapes, the implements and tools of Paleolithic age could be divided into following types:

1. Hand Axe: This was the oldest tool developed by the humans. It was used to cut something into smaller parts. It was broad at base and tapered towards the end. It was held in hand from the broader end.

2. Cleaver: It was double edged implement used to cut trees and make pieces of huge trunks.

3. Discoid core: It was big rounded stone used to kill an animal either in defence or for food.
 

4. Chopper: It was also a big stone sharpened along at least one edge. It was also used to cut objects. (Gandasa)

These were the four basic implements used by the Paleolithic men first, and all were big stone tools. It seems that all these tools were made of naturally found large stones, which were put to use by Paleolithic people. This technique of tool making is known as Conglomerate Boulder Technique. All the four above mentioned implements were made of using this technique. Later on, humans developed techniques to make specific implements by cutting or breaking large boulders according to their needs and wishes. This technique of cutting boulders to make implements is known as flaking technology, which saw use of brains in cutting and shaping implements according to humans’ needs and imagination.

· The flaking technology produced two types of implements: Flake tools, which were smaller in size as they were cut or broken from the large boulders. They were simply called flakes. Second was the core implement, which was the main part of the original large boulder. It is called core tool. Owing to this technological development humans went to make better implements and tools using these flakes.

5. (Side) Scrapper: It was the first improved implement made by using flake technique. It had a sharp edge while the other side was developed as such to make a comfortable grip to hold on. Scrapper might have been used to fleece animals or remove bark of tree trunks. Scrappers stamp the first evidence of use of improved technology by Paleolithic man. (Khurachani)

6. Burins: (It is equivalent to Randa/ Takshini of modern days’ carpenters). It was used to draw lines or sketches on the walls of the caves and to make holes in tree trunks. It was a quality implement.

Of the six implements basic four were used during Lower Paleolithic age. Flaking technique came into use during Middle Paleolithic age. Flakes were being used this time around along with core tools. During Upper Paleolithic age improved flake tools like side scrappers and burins were developed.

· Technological development: Conglomerate Boulder Technique was employed in Lower Paleolithic age. Flaking technology was used in middle Paleolithic age while during Upper Paleolithic age technology further developed and free flaking, step on flaking, block on block flaking and di-polar flaking techniques were employed to make tools.

· On the basis of the nature of the stone tools, one can have an idea about the needs of the Paleolithic man.

1. They needed protection against wild animals and gathered food from forests.

2. Initially they used implements which were defensive in nature. Later on, they developed aggressive/offensive implements.

3. There were two sources to meet food related requirements: meat from animals and fruits from forests. So, the humans developed such implements that can meet their requirements. They developed implements to cut dead animals, fleece them and mash their flesh.

4. Their implements and tools were large in size. This might have been a case of meeting necessities. Large boulders were naturally available and big animals were large in number making easy availability of food for humans, who just had to kill those animals to feed on. Further, killing a big animal could fulfill their food requirements for more days, they became their primary targets. And, to kill big animals only large implements could have been the need of the hour.

5. Later on, when number of big animals dwindled a bit and humans found it easier to kill small animals, which were much more in numbers making meeting of food requirements easy on daily basis, the later middle and upper Paleolithic man developed small implements using flake technology.

6. The fossils that have been found from the earlier ages prove that most of the animals killed or devoured by humans were big in size. This proves that humans were food gatherers and passing though a barbaric phase of their evolution. But, they were progressing rapidly.

7. All the sources of information on Paleolithic man point to one thing that the humans were totally dependent on the nature for all their needs. They were striving to adapt to the vagaries of the nature, which was very harsh as most of the earth was covered by ice during Pleistocene, which was the age of Paleolithic man. Humans were struggling for survival. Fresh water ponds were hard to find, during ice age smaller animals were not in great numbers, forests were not easily accessible due to ice coverage and also, better quality of rocks were not exposed to them for making improved tools. But, they survived using their fast evolving brain. The entire age was the age of food gatherers, who were yet to be introduced to any form of agriculture.

8. Evidence show that humans were not yet aware of the significance of fire. Though there is slight possibility that they might have seen some kind of fire. However, most of the scholar rule out this possibility saying that during ice age wild fire due to friction among the branches could not have occurred as the temperature could not have gone much above the freezing point. Whatever may be the case, it is a fact that humans ate uncooked food, both vegetarian and non-vegetarian. They ate fruits, some roots and some other produces of forests. They consumed raw meat of the animals, killed during hunting. They were essentially barbaric in nature.

9. There was settled habitation. Humans lived in caves and rock shelters. But, they lived in groups. There are enough evidence to prove this point. Scholars are unanimous in believing that humans lived in congregation out of safety concerns. They had learnt by now that only by living in groups they can fight with wild animals. This group habitation or congregation led to evolution of society.

10. No metal was being used during Paleolithic age. Pottery making has not come to the fore yet.

11. There was no specific pattern of disposal of dead bodies. This proves that the humans were yet to develop the emotional feelings for fellow beings and that there was no respect yet for those who died.

12. There has been no evidence of cloth making or use of cloth to protect their bodies against a very hostile nature. It is possible that the humans might have used the skin and hides of animal to guard themselves against icy winds. But, this can not be said conclusively for the lack of evidence.

13. Cave paintings are available. The evidence can be found on the inner walls of the caves at Bhimbetka, nearly 40 kilometres from Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh, at Machchhutavi in Andhra Pradesh, Patne in Maharashtra and Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh. It is possible that these sketches were made using burins developed in the upper Paleolithic age. In Mirzapur, a cave sketch shows an animal and a man with large boulder lifted above head behind that animal. This shows as if the man is getting ready to strike the animal with the boulder.

14. There are evidence in sketches that depict humans breaking and tearing fishes, fruits and other things. All such cave paintings belong to a period around thirty thousand BC. So, even the initial cave paintings of Bhimbetka belong to the upper Paleolithic age. This is an evidence of humans’ natural inclination towards arts.

· The evidence of Paleolithic habitation has been found all over the Indian sub-continent. The main river valleys which have thrown proof of Paleolithic habitation are as follows:

1. Sohan valley in Pakistan

2. Beas-Wainganga valley in Punjab (India)

3. Luni-Jojri valley in Rajasthan

4. Sirsa valley in Punjab and Haryana

5. Sabarmati-Mahe valley in Gujarat

6. Chambal-Betwa valley in Madhya Pradesh

7. Narmada valley in Madhya Pradesh

8. Belan valley in Uttar Pradesh

9. Godawari valley in Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh

10. Krishna-Vibha valley in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh

11. Malprabha-Ghatprabha valleys in Karnataka

12. River valleys in Singhbhum region of Jharkhand

13. Damodar-Mahanadi valleys in West Bengal and Odisha

14. Kaveri valley in Tamil Nadu

· Following are the important sites of Paleolithic habitation:

1. Sohan: Adiyal, Balwaaland Chandal.

2. Punjab: Derda

3. Kashmir: Chauntara and Pahalgam

4. Rajasthan: Chittorgarh, Mysoregarh and Didwana

5. Gujarat: Medhamali and Visadi

6. Madhya Pradesh: Bhimbetka, Hathnala, Baghor and Maihar

7. Uttar Pradesh: Belan region, Mirzapur hills, Chakia Tahasil of Varanasi

8. Jharkhand: Hazaribagh

9. West Bengal: Bankura and Purulia

10. Odisha: Budha Valang, Mayurbhanj and Kyonjhar

11. Maharashtra: Naivasa, Bori, Inamgaon and Patne

12. Karnataka: Hungsi. This might have been an industrial site.

13. Andhra Pradesh: Kurnool, Nagarjunakonda, Renigunta, Machchhutavi Hill and Chintamanigaavi hill region

14. Tamil Nadu: Pallavaram, Attirampakkam, Budia Maim, Vanka and Gudiyan caves near Chennai. They exhibit a transition from lower to upper Paleolithic phases.

15. Only Kerala and the states of the northeast do not have any evidence of Paleolithic habitation in India. Assam has thrown some evidence but those are negligible.

16. Clearly, the Indian sub-continent has evidence of humans’ activities for over one lakh years.

Volcanoes, Activities and Volcanic Landscape

A landscape is the collection of landforms. Volcanic landforms consist of Extrusive and Intrusive landforms.

A. Extrusive Landforms: In this case lava solidifies in contact with air. Here the rate of cooling or solidification is faster and hence mineral grains are fine and not distinguishably visible to naked human eyes.
B. Intrusive Landforms: They are formed due to solidification of lava within the crust In this case lava cools or solidifies slowly, that is why the grains are bigger in size.

Volcanic materials are of two types:
A. Pyroclasts
B. Lava

In general, lava dominates the volcanic scenery. However, a volcanic landform containing no lava is possible, it would have only pyroclast. This is seen in two cases. First, when there is a closure of vent after the pyroclasts have come out, here lava gets solidified in the vent and later converts into the crust.

Second, when a thin layer of lava gets deposited over the pyroclasts and after some time the layer of lava is eroded leading to the exposure of the pyroclasts.

Pyroclasts materials are collectively called Tephra.
A large sized angular pyroclastic material or rock is called Block or Brecia.
A large oval sized lava rocks are called volcanic bombs.
Pea shaped lava rock is called Lapili. They are as small as glass marble.
Bombs and lapili solidify before they fall on the ground. This explains their round shape.
Sometimes, lava acquire vesicular shape and the lava crusts hold gases inside. Such rocks are referred to as Pumice, Scoriae or Cinders. Escaping gases make vesicles and holes in the upper solidified lava crust. Lower lava has not solidified in such structures.
The rock which is composed of a mixture of ash, dust, lapili and cinder is called Tuffs.
Hornitos are small mounds of spatter or driblets.

What are volcanoes:

The English word volcano is derived from a Greek word Vulcan who was a Roman god. According to greek mythology he was believed to be living in the interior of the earth. Going by the mythological sense of the people, volcano can be defined as the fire place of gods. No wonder in Japan, Fujiyama is still worshipped. Pele is the Hawaiian goddess of volcanoes. The term Pele’s Tears, though derived from the goddess Pele, in volcanic jargon it means teardrop shaped pyroclastic $ glassy lava thrown out in volcanic explosions, which have fused and solidified in air. In India too the land of myths, Jwalamukhi festival is related to the nature’s peculiar phenomenon in Himachal Pradesh.

The volcanic explosion, a devastating and terrible phenomenon was considered in ancient times as the expression of the anger of a god or goddess.

Coming to the science of volcano, the Penguin’s Dictionary of Geography defines volcano as a vent in the earth’s crust caused by magma forcing its way to the surface, molten rock or lava is finally , sometimes with explosive force rock fragments and ashes being thrown into the air. The emission of lava or eruptions often cause the volcano to take the form of a conical hill or mountain, the latter is gradually built up of ejected material, which is deposited most thickly round the outlet.

In other words, volcanoes are built by the eruption of molten rock and heated gases under pressure from a relatively small pipe or vent, leading from a magma reservoir at depth. Eruption may take place from the top or sides of the cone.

Structure of Volcano

A volcano is a vent or a group of closely spaced vents through which molten rocks, magma and not gases are ejected out of a deep seated source.

A volcano has three important parts:

Vent: An opening or conduit in the surface of the earth through which volcano material is ejected. A series of vents may form along a major fracture creating a fissure volcano. Volcanoes also develop with central vents and subsidiary vents on the sides of the cone.

Cone: The ejected rock material rushing out of the vent creates a cone like formation at the upper end of the vent. The cone has a steep slope and sometimes takes the form of a mountain.

Crater: A funnel shaped depression at the top or on the sides of a volcanic cone. It may be produced by an explosive eruption or by the collapse of the cone following the withdrawal of underlying lava. Its walls are almost vertical.

Volcanoes are of three types:

Extinct: Such volcanoes that don’t have any realistic possibility of magma upwelling in future are called extinct volcanoes. These volcanoes were active in the geological past. Examples are the Popa mountains in Myanmar, Mt Kilimanjaro in Africa, Mauritius, Madagascar, Malagasy and several other islands in the Indian Ocean. There are thousands of extinct volcanoes which are undergoing erosion by running water and wind and therefore look really extinct.

Dormant: Such volcanoes that have exploded in the recent past and may explode in future are known as dormant volcanoes. It is not easy to differentiate between the extinct and the dormant types of volcanoes. The Vesuvius was considered to be an extinct volcano. But it becomes dangerously active after hundreds of years. Examples are, Fujiyama and Krakatoa.

Active: Such volcanoes that have exploded recently and whose explosions may still be vivid in the public memory. Some of them emit lava after every 15 or twenty minutes. Stromboli is most well known among them. There are almost 300 active volcanoes in the the world. Examples are Mauna Loa, Mt Etna, Mt Vesuvius, Cotopaxi of Ecuador—world’s highest active volcano at 19, 600 feet.

Volcanic landscape is conical. The axis of the formation goes along the vent. Magma or lava particles solidify around the vent of a volcano. After solidification, the magma materials become igneous rocks.

Lava is of two types:
A. Felsic or Acidic
B. Mafic or Basic

Mafic lava has greater fluidity than the felsic lava and its melting point is also lower. Presence of high silica content in the Felsic lava increases its meting point. Acidic lava is of two types: Andesitic and Ignimbrite or rhyolitic lava. Andesitic lava has medium silica content while Ignimbrite lava has high silica content. Ignimbrite rocks are highly acidic. Nuee ardente is an andesitic lava flow. Lahar is also a form of andisitic lava flow. It is volcanic mud flow. Lahars cause accumulations of large quantities of sandy and rocky debris on lower slopes and surrounding areas and may form extensive plains. The plains west of central volcanic mountains of North Island of New Zealand is a good example of Lahar. A mixture of fine debris and water, derived generally from a crater lake of a dormant volcano, bursts out when eruption is resumed forming mud that rushes down the mountain side.

A vent is essentially required for the upwelling of felsic lava while the basic lava can come out through a crack or fracture, the only requirement is that the crack should have continuity with the magma chamber. Latur region in Maharashtra has such cracks.

Silica or acid lava builds high steep sided cones while basic or basaltic lava produces a flatter cone of great diameter. Sometimes the surface of the solidified lava may be smooth but usually it is quite rugged. In the case of both acid and basic lava, the escaping gases make the surface of the lava vesicular and full of small holes.
Besides, the upper surface cools early and forms a crust while lava continues to flow beneath the surface for quite some time. This results into the opening up cracks in the crust and the parts thus broken are transported downward by the moving lava.

Thus, the surface formed by the lava deposits is normally rough and irregular and full of cracks and holes into which rainwater can easily penetrate. The two contrasting surface features or structures may develop owing to differential lava flow at different levels of the volcanic materials in motion. They are known by their Hawaiian names, Aa for angular vesucular scoriaceous surface and Pahoehoe or Ropy for smoothly twisted, convolute surface which develosps on hotter and more fluid lava.

An extreme case of pahoehoe lava occurs when the hot fluid lava either erupts under water. In this case, blobs or lobes of lava upto a diameter of one metre is formed, which has tough but flexible skins (upper surface) and is piled up like sandbags or pillows while their interiors are still in molten state. This is called pillow lava. It is an evidence of sub-aqueous eruption and is commonly found on ocean floor.

Volcanic gases are composed of 60- to 90 % of steam. Other components of volcanic gases are carbon di oxide, nitrogen and sulphur di oxide, and small quantities of hydrogen, carbon mono oxide, sulphur and chlorine.

Solfatara: the stage of volcano when it emits only steam and gases is called the solfatar stage even after the eruption of lava and ashes has ceased. Sulphur content is an important feature of Solfatara stage which is named after the Solfatara volcano near Naples.


TYPES OF CENTRAL ERUPTION:

Based on the nature and intensity of eruption and on the composition of the expelled materials, central eruption is classified under six categories:


1. Hawaiian: Eruption is peaceful here. Hawaiian activity is essentially effusive. Lava is of thin basal variety. There is little or no tephra in the Hawaiian type of eruption. Sometimes, fountains of basaltic spray rise up with gases and when the wind is strong. These lava pieces are stretched i8nto long shiny threads known as Pele’s Hair in the Hawaiian islands—named after Pele, the goddess of fire in the islands. Examples are basalt plateau of Columbia and Iceland.

2. Strombolian: Moderate explosive action is found in this type of eruption. Scoriae and bombs are formed in the strombolian type. Normally eruption is intermittent but may be continuous) and fountains of lava are ejected at regular, rhythmic intervals varying from a few minutes to about an hour and flows are unusual. Stromboli is an island in the Lipri group of islands north of Sicily in the Mediterranean Sea. The lava fountain activity of Stromboli, reflected at night as a red glow on the downside of a towering steam plume has caused the volcano to be known as lighthouse of the Mediterranean. This type of eruption took place in Heckila, Iceland in 1947-48.

3. Vulcanian: The type is named after the Vulcano located in Lipri Islands. Vulcnian activity is explosive. In vulcanian type of eruption, lava solidifies and seals the mouth of the crater in between the two explosions or eruptions. Magma materials of all size are thrown with predominance of ash and dust. Eruption gives appearance of a huge cauliflower…as seen from distance. 1883 explosion of Krakatoa is considered Vulcanian type which was also followed by vesuvian type of explosion. But, that Krakatoa explosion is considered a special type of vulcanian explosion called Phreatic Eruption because it was caused by groundwater or sea water entering the magma chamber and flashing into steam.

4. Vesuvian: It is violent in nature. Lava comes out first from lateral cracks and then through main vent as the gases keep on accumulating in the main vent. Example is 1883 Krakatoa explosion. An eruption of this type was first recorded by Pliny in 79 AC during Vesuvius explosion hence sometimes it is also called Plinian type. Some consider the Vesuvian and Vulcanian types essentially the same and Vesuvius explosion of 79 AD is often cited as an example of Vulcanian eruption.

5. Pelean: It is violently explosive eruption. At the time of first eruption, the dense lava solidifies and closes the mouth of the crater and a dome is formed there. After some time it is broken and lava comes out along the hill slope and then an extremely dense mass of highly charged gaseous lava mixed with magma materials and ash flows down the slope like avalanches. These have been called Nuees ardentes or glowing clouds. Nuee ardente is soundless in spite of the fact that it has the velocity of winds in a hurricane. Example is 1902 explosion of Mt Pelee in West Indies. Nuee ardente is an andesitic lava flow.

An explosion of Pelean type differs from that of Vulcanian type in that the very hot gas and lava mixture is not thrown upwards but spreads downslope as nuee ardente.

6. Mud Volcano: In areas where petroleum or gas is found, sand and clay accompanies the gas emitting out in those areas. If water is also there, sand and clay form mud. The sand and clay is deposited at the vent and form a cone. The example is Bog-Boga in Baku area near Caspean Sea.

DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANIC LANDFORMS IN THE WORLD

There are three well known zones of volcanic landforms:

A. Mid-oceanic Ridge: Upwelling Zone
B. Subduction Zone
C. Intra-plate volcanic/ seismic zone

At the mid-oceanic ridges mafic lava upwells which widely spreads over the sea floor leading to volcanic landform.

At the subduction zone felsic lava upwells which leads to formation of Plutonic, that is, Intrusive landforms. Though there may also be volcanic, that is, extrusive landforms having felsic lava in the same region. Examples are, Mt Etna, Alaska plateau, Columbia plateau, plateau of Peru, Reunion Islands in the Indian Ocean. In the Mediterranean Sea, all islands are made up of acidic lava.

Intra-plate volcanism is found in the interior of a plate. At present a number of active volcanoes are in the intra-plate region. Examples are, Mt Kilimanjaro: the highest volcanic mountain in Africa, Mt Kenya: the second highest in Africa- both are of acidic nature; Deccan Lava plateau (formed due to basic or fissure eruption): it is the highest lava plateau in the world, Parana plateau of Brazil: the second highest lava plateau in the world, Columbia plateau: the third highest lava plateau and it is the youngest lava plateau dating early Pleistocene age. Parana plateau of Brazil and Deccan plateau of India are contemporary in age.

Volcanic Landforms are of two types:

A. Associated to central eruption
B. Associated to fissure eruption


CENTRAL VOLCANIC LANDFORMS:

Central volcanic eruption occurs through the vent and in general acid lava erupts through this and so some typical landforms are produced.

1. Cinder cone: These are smallest of the volcanoes, built entirely of pieces (pyroclasts) of solidified lava thrown from a central vent. They form where a high proportion of gas in the molten rock causes it to froth into a bubbly mass and to be ejected from a vent with great violence. The froth breaks up into small gragments which solidify as they are ejected and fall as solid particles near the vent. Finer particles are rained down on the crater, and form a cone in a circle around the crater. The slope of wall ranges from 260 to 300….in other words, cinder cone is a concave structure as a whole and its slope is 30-40 degrees. Cinder cone rarely grow to more than 150 to 300 metres in height. Growth is rapid. Monte Nuovo near Naples grew to a height of 120 metres in the first week of its existence. Puraricutin in Mexico reached a height of 300 metres in three months. Cinder cones usually occur in groups, often many dozens in an area of a few tens of square miles. They sometimes show an alignment parallel with fault lines in the underlying rock. Pushpagiri in Karnataka, Mt Kenya and Mt Kilimanjaro are dominated by pyroclasts. Barren Island in the Indian Ocean is also an example of cinder cone. Pushkar Lake is situated in a cinder cone. Lake Pushkar is an old caldera wherein the conical head has been massively eroded leading to the exposure of pyroclasts. (Image: cinder cone)

2. Acid Dome: In this case pyroclasts are covered by solidified thin layer of rhyolite. Acid domes are also called cumulo-domes or endogenous domes which rise into a crater. Examples are, Reunion Island and also islands in the Auvergne region of France. (image)

3. Basalt Dome: Sometimes basalts came out through the vent when the crustal layer is thin enough. Here concentration of pyroclasts is very low. It is basically a plateau like structure having a raised central portion which is occupied by a lake. Basalt domes and shield volcanoes are essentially the same structure, the difference being that of size only. The basaltic domes grade upwards to become shield volcanoes. Basaltic domes are exogenous domes- piled around a central vent. Examples are, Shield Island in Hawaii, Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea, Tahiti Island and Banks Peninsula in New Zealand.

4. Composite Cone: Composite cones are the characteristics of dormant volcanoes. Composite cone has alternate layers of pyroclasts and solidified lava. These are found in old cone and are known as strato-volcanoes. Most of the world’s great volcanoes are composite cones. The steep sided form is governed by the angle at which the cinder and ash stand, whereas the lava layers provide strength and bulk to the volcano. Height upto several thousand feet and slope of 20 to 30 degrees are characteristics. The slope is less than what is found in the case of cinder cones. The crater may change form rapidly, both from demolition of the upper part and from new accumulation. Examples are Fujiyama- it has three well defined such layers, Vesuvius and Stromboli in Italy, Popokatepatal in Mexico, Mt Hood in Oregon, Mt Shasta and Mt Ranier in USA, Cotopaxy in Ecuador, Mayon in Philippines. (Image)

5. Parasite Cone: Parasite cone is also the characteristics of dormant volcanoes. In this case the lava does not find passage through the main vent or the parent vent due to thick deposition and solidification of lava during erstwhile volcanic activity. Os, the lava tends to move towards subsidiary vents (owing to less pushing gaseous force) along the cracks or the fracture in the crust. Lava come out to the slope side of the parent volcano through some cracks, but at the other cracks may not give route to any amount of lava. The lateral volcano is called parasite or satellite cone. The lateral crack is a heterogeneous layer. Presence of a parent vent is the essential condition for the formation of parasite cone. Also, parasite cones would only develop if the length of the lateral vent is shorter than the main vent and the rocks are brittle. Examples are, Mt Etna- highest in Europe and has 230 satellite cones, Fusiyama has 45 satellite cones, Mt Egmont in New Zealand. Composite and Parasite cones are found on the landforms. (Image)

6. Crater and Caldera: Just above the volcanic vent there is usually a rounded bowl or funnel shaped structure which is called crater. Its diameter is normally small. The following are the causes of crater formation:

A. Violent throw off of the volcanic material
B. Process of solidification of the volcanic materials around the vent or the ring crater and their compactness promote crater formation.
C. Erosion of materials from around the vent.

In the crater depression small lakes are formed which are called maare or maars. Maar is a German word that refers to a small, near circular sheet of water situated in the explosion vent, the result of an eruption that blown a hole in the surface of the rocks, surrounded by a low crater ring of fragments of the country rock but accompanied by no extrusion of igneous rocks.
Craters can be seen in Eiffel volcanic region of Germany due to violent explosion in the western part of the rift valley of Africa. Caldera is an extensive rounded volcanic depression whose diameter is greater than that of a crater. Crater is due to geological process and when it is eroded massively it becomes caldera, that is, for caldera formation erosion is required but it can also be formed by an explosion. A huge caldera with a diameter of four miles was formed at the time of the Krakatoa explosion in 1883, the caldera of Mt Katmai in Alaska, the Crater lake of Oregon is located in the caldera in USA-it has a diameter of six miles and is of Pleistocene origin. On the top of the Barisan Highland in the northwest Sumatra, there is a huge caldera in which Loke Toba is situated. Lonar Lake, lake Nicaragua and Lake Titikaka are the other examples of caldera.


7. Nested Caldera: Also called Cone in cone. It is also associated with dormant volcano. In this case there are two or more than two calderas situated one above the other and each caldera possesses a lake. Example is Fusiyama which has three such lakes.
8. Plug Dome: Plug refers to a more or less cylindrical mass of acid lava, occupying the vent of a dormant or extinct volcano. Here acid lava is generally exposed by denudation. This landform is produced due to greater erosion within the caldera exposing the dykes which is relatively harder. In this case, the surrounding rocks are removed and the dyke remains stranded. This landform is not precisely a dome but similar to dome topography and hence this is known as plug dome. It is also called tholoid or volcanic neck. It is the intrusive feature of Plutons. Examples are found in Nicaragua in central America, in crater dome of Mount Pelee, Matinique in West Indies, the Arthur’s Seat, the site of Edinburgh in Scotland, the plugs of Auvergne in France, Hopi Buttes in north east Arizona (in Colorado plateau region) and also in the Castle Rock (near Edinburgh).

At times, eruption occurs through cracks and fractures in the rock structure. In this case basic lava is the only material that upwells in huge quantity. Felsic lava does not have enough fluidity to pass through small cracks. The upwelled basic lava spreads over a vast area due to high fluid nature of the moving magma. This process leads to the formation of large basaltic landforms. Deccan plateau of India and Columbia plateau. All the major plateaux of the world are basaltic.

Radial dykes may sometimes be laid bare by deep erosion of a volcanic neck. A classic example is Shiprock in New Mexico where volcanic neck with prominent radiating dykes are seen in north east New Mexico. Radiating dykes are also found in the Glasshouse Mountains of Queensland, north of Brisbane.

Plate Tectonics and Volcanism:

In 1968 Morgan outlined the hypothesis of plate tectonics. He divided the earth’s surface into twenty plates which are moving relative to one another above the weaker semiplastic asthenosphere as a result, it is believed, of thermal convection currents within the mantle. Le Pichon simplified the concepts of plate tectonics by dividing the earth’s surface into six major, and a few minor or small ones.

The phenomenon of volcanism takes place due to destructive plate activities along the margins of the converging plates.As the oceanic crust is forced downwards into the subduction zone, it becomes molten and forced back to the surface of the earth as a chain of volcanoes.

DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES

Volcanoes in Philippines

There are about 200 hundred volcanoes in the Philippines archipelago, 21 of which are active; to name a few, Mt Isarog (1900 metres) situated 280 kilometres southeast of Manila, erupted 600 years ago; Mr Natib 1200 (metres), 40 kilometres south of Mt Pinatubo is supposed to have ejected steam and therefore mild tremors were recorded by the scientists.

Eruption in Japan

Mt Unzen erupted on June 3, in 1991, killing 38 geologists who were studying the invisible activities going on within the heart of the volcano. The evacuation of nearby inhabitants was already accomplished on the warnings issued by the same group of 38 scientists, who themselves fell victims to the fury of the nature.

Eruption in Andaman Islands

A team engaged in routine inspection of light houses in the Andaman Islands sighted thick smoke spewing out of the Barren Island volcano 125 kilometres from port Blair on April 10 in 1991.

The advancing lava front had already covered a sizeable portion of the island, rendering the light houses non functional and making it virtyually impossible to use any of the landing sites.

The volcano had erupted 200 years ago. The lava thrown out on Barren Island is chemically different from the lava spewed during its previous eruption. According to geologists, the volcano activity on Barren Island has been in three phases. Eruption of submarine lava gave birth to the island 50,000 thousand years ago, creating a joint volcanic cone that covered the whole island. In the second phse, the cone was later blown off and the ejected debris was deposited on the cauldron. In the last phase, a large spatter cone has developed at the mouth of the eruption as a result of which, two volcanic cones are now visible.

The eruption on about 30th April in 1991 originated not in the older crater, but in a vent alongside it.

Narcondum Island, the other volcanic island in the region has shown no sign of becoming active. According to the geological survey of India, Nacondum Islands has no recorded history of eruption.

Two volcanic islands in the Andamans are in the Pacific Volcanic belt which extends to Japan and Philippines.

WORLD DISTRIBUTION

The zones along which earthquake, volcanic or mountain building activity is currently taking place coincide with junctions between plates.

1. Island Festoons of the Pacific: Two third of world’s active volcanoes of the world and thousands of inactive volcanoes are found in this belt. The volcanic belt surrounds the pacific ocean. It is also known as the Ring or Circle of Fire. Among the important volcanic areas of this circle of fire are Aleutian Islands, Alaskan sub-continent, Guatemala, northern and southern Andes. The Circle of Fire contacts with the Atlantic belt at two places: A. Lesser Antilles Vocanic belt. B. The one spot situated in the volcanic belt of South Antilles and which joins Patagonia with Grahamland.
2. Alpine Himalayan Belt: The belt starts from Maderia and the Canary Islands and passes through the Vesuvious, Lipri Island, the Etna and the Aegian volcanoes of the Mediterranian Sea. The belt continues further through Caucasus, Armenia, Iran and reaches Balochistan. After crossing the Himalayas the belt crosses Yunan, Myanmar, Andamans and ends in Indonesian Islands.
3. African Rift Valley: It starts from Bay of Guinea to Red Sea passing through the middle of Africa. The most active volcano in this belt is Cameroon. Mt Kilimanjaro and Kenyan volcanic mountains are beyond the rift valley but Algon is within the belt.
4. Other Areas: Mid Atlantic Cape Verde is famous among them. Volcanoes of Indian Ocean are Comoro, Mauritius and Reunion situated close to Madagascar. There are many volcanoes close to Antarctica.

Environmental Aspects of Volcanoes:

Heavy loss of life and property occurs when volcanoes erupt. About 50 active volcanoes erupt each year. About 360 million people live in the shadows of volcanoes that may explode at any time. Geologists watch only mountains they believe to be still active. Some of the world’s worst disasters have resulted from the eruption of volcanoes thought to be extinct, for example, Vesuvius in 79 AD. In 1985 eruption of Nevado del Ruiz in Columbia killed 22,000 people.

Volcanic ash may have a beneficial effect upon productivity of soil where the ash fall is relatively light. Eruption of Sunset crater near Flagstaff, Arizona in 1065 AD spread a layer of sandy volcanic ash over Barren reddish soil of the surrounding region and caused it to become highly productive because of the moisture conserving effect of the ash, which acted as mulch in the semi-arid climate.

Steep slopes provide valuable timber resources e.g. San Francisco. A scenic feature of great beauty, attracting a heavy tourist trade, few landforms outranks volcanoes. National Parks have formed due to volcanic activities, e.g. Mt Rainier, Mt Lassen and Crater Lake.

The gas-bubble cavities in some ancient lava have become filled with copper or other ores. The famed Kimberlite rock of South Africa sources of diamonds is the pipe of an ancient Volcano.

As a source of crushed rock for concrete aggregate or railroad ballast and other engineering purposes, lava rock is often extensively used. Thus the ancient layers that make up the watching ridges of northern New Jersey have in places been vertically leveled in quarrying operations continued over several decades.