Maurya emperor Ashoka riding a chariot in a Sanchi Stupa relief (Photo: Twitter)
Ashokan
policy of Dhamma has been a topic of lively discussion and the best source to
know about his Dhamma is his edicts. The edicts were primarily written to
explain to the people the principles of Dhamma. What comes out from his edicts
is that the Dhamma was not any particular religious faith or practice. It was
also not an arbitrarily formulated royal policy. Dhamma related to the norms of
social behaviour and activities in a very general sense and in his Dhamma,
Ashoka attempted a very careful synthesis of various norms which were current
in his times.
The Dhamma
had a historical background that served as a set of causes effecting in an
official policy of one of the most powerful kings the world has seen.
SOCIOECONOMIC BACKGROUND
The Mauryan
period witnessed a change in the economic structure of society largely due to
the increasing use of iron. It has generally been argued that the use of the
Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) pottery is an indicator of material
prosperity of the period.
The use of
punch-marked coins of silver and some other varieties of coins, the conscious
intervention of the state to safeguard trade routes and the rise of urban
centres point to a structured change in the economy. It required necessary
adjustments in society.
The
commercial classes had also come to the forefront. The emergence of urban
culture by its very logic demanded a more flexible social organisation.
The
incorporation of tribes and peoples from the outlying areas into the social
fabric also presented a problem. The rigidity of the Brahmanical class
sharpened the division within society. The lower orders turned to various
heterodox sects and this created social tensions.
It was this
socioeconomic situation which emperor Ashoka inherited when he ascended the
Mauryan throne.
RELIGIOUS BACKGROUND
The
Brahmanical hold over society was increasingly coming under severe attack. The
privileges of the priests, the rigidity of the caste system and elaborate
rituals were being questioned. The lower orders among the four caste-classes
began to favour new sects. The opposition to the Brahmanism by the commercial
class was to give a fillip to the other sects of society.
On the
other hand, Buddhism opposed the dominance of the Brahmanas and the concept of
sacrifice and rituals. Buddhism had begun as a schismatic movement from the
more orthodox Brahmanism. Its fundamentals were based on an emphasis on misery
and advocacy of the middle path. It appealed to the lower orders and to the
emerging social classes. The humane approach to relations in society preached
by Buddhism further attracted different sections to Buddhism. Ashoka’s Dhamma
bore deep influence of Buddhism.
POLITICAL BACKGROUND
By the time
Ashoka ascended the throne, the state system of Mahajanapadas had grown very
elaborate and complex from where it had started during the Mahajanapada era.
Now, there
was political supremacy of one region (Magadha) over a vast territory which
comprised many previous kingdoms, gana-sanghas and areas where no organised
states had existed before.
Within this
vast territory, there was existence of various geographical regions, cultural
areas and different beliefs, faiths and practices.
There was
monopoly of fore by a ruling class of which the emperor was the supreme head.
The state
appropriated a very substantial quantity of surplus from agriculture, commerce
and other sources.
A large
administrative apparatus was developed for governing the people and
territories.
The
complexity of the state system demanded an imaginative policy from the emperor
based on minimal use of force in such a large empire having diverse forms of
economy and religions. It could not have been controlled by an army alone. A
more feasible alternative was the propagation of a policy that would work at an
ideological level and reach out to all sections of society.
The policy
of Dhamma was such an endeavour. Obviously, the policy of Dhamma was an earnest
attempt at solving some of the problems a complex society faced. However, it is
also true that Ashoka’s personal beliefs and his own perception of how he
should respond to the problems of his empire were responsible for the
formulation of the policy of Dhamma.
CONTENTS OF DHAMMA
The
principles of Dhamma were so formulated as to be acceptable to people belonging
to different communities and following any religious sect. Dhamma was not given
any formal definition or structure. It emphasised on toleration and general
behaviour of people. Its emphasis in particular was on dual toleration – of
people themselves and also their various beliefs and ideas.
There is
stress on showing consideration towards slaves and servants, obedience to
elders, and generosity towards the needy, Brahmanas and Shramanas. Ashoka prescribed
tolerance of different religious sects in an attempt to create a sense of
harmony.
The policy
of Dhamma also laid emphasis on non-violence, which was to be pracised by
giving up war and conquests, and also as a restraint on killing of animals.
However, Ashoka was conscious that display of his political and military might
up to a certain degree could be necessary to keep his empire intact and certain
sections of people, especially some primitive forest tribes in check.
The policy
of Dhamma included certain welfare measures such as planting of trees, digging
up of wells etc. Ashoka denounced certain ceremonies and sacrifices practised
regularly on various occasions as meaningless.
A group of
officers known as the Dhamma Mahamattas were instituted to implement and
publicise various aspects of Dhamma. Ashoka thrust a very special
responsibility on them to carry his messages to various sections of society.
However, they seem to have developed into a type of priesthood of Dhamma with
great powers and soon began to interfere in politics as well.
DHAMMA AS PER MAJOR ROCK EDICTS
Major Rock Edict-I
It declared prohibition of animal
sacrifice and holiday festive gatherings.
Major Rock Edict-II
It related to certain measures of social
welfare which were included in the working of Dhamma. It mentioned medical
treatment for men and animals, construction of roads, wells and planting of
fruit-bearing trees and medicinal herbs.
Also talked about states outside the
boundaries of Magadh empire: Pandyas, Satyapuras and Keralaputras of South
India.
Major Rock Edict-III
It declared that liberality towards
Brahmanans and Shramanas is a virtue. Respect to mother and father is a good
quality to have. Empire officials Yuktas, Pradeshikas and Rajukas would go
every five years to different parts of his empire to spread Dhamma.
Major Rock Edict-IV
Dhammaghosha (bugle of righteousness or
Dhamma) over Bherighosha (bugle of war). It said that due to the policy of
Dghamma, the lack of morality and disrespect towards Brahmanas and Shramanas,
violence, unseemly behavior towards friends, relatives and others, and evils of
this kind have been checked. The killing of animals to a large extent was also
stopped.
Major Rock Edict-V
It referred to the appointment of Dhamma
Mahamattas for the first time in the twelfth year of his reign. These special
officers were by the emperor to look after the interests of all sects and
religions and spread the message of Dhamma in each nook and cranny of the
state. The implementation of the plicy of Dhamma was entrusted in their hands.
It talked about treating slaves right
and humane.
Major Rock Edict-VI
It was an instruction to Dhamma
Mahamattas. They were told that they could bring their reports to the emperor
at any time, irrespective of whatever activity he may be engaged in. the second
part of the edict dealt with speedy administration and smooth transaction of
business.
Major Rock Edict-VII
It talked the necessity of tolerance
towards different religions among all sects, and welfare measures being
undertaken by the emperor/empire for the public not only within the Magadhan
territories but in his neighbouring kingdoms as well.
Major Rock Edict-VIII
It talked about Dhammayatras saying that
the emperor would undertake these tours instead of traditional hunting
expedition to improve and deepen his contact with various sections of people of
the empire.
It mentioned about Ashoka’s first visit
to Bodh Gaya and Bodhi Tree, giving importance to Dhamma Yatra.
Major Rock Edict-IX
It attacked ceremonies performed at
birth, illness, marriage and before setting out for a journey. A censure was
passed against ceremonies observed by wives and mothers. Ashoka instead laid
stress on the practice of Dhamma and usefulness of ceremonies.
Major Rock Edict-X
It denounced fame and glory, and
reasserted the merit of following the policy of Dhamma.
Major Rock Edict-XI
It is a further explanation of Dhamma
with emphasis on showing respect to elders, abstaining from killing animals,
liberality towards friends and being humane towards slaves and servants.
Major Rock Edict-XII
Similar to MRE-VIII, it reflected the
anxiety of Emperor Ashoka that he fled owing to conflict between competing sects
and carried instructions for maintaining harmony.
It mentioned about Ithijika Mahamatta,
the high-ranking official in charge of women’s welfare.
Major Rock Edict-XIII
It is of paramount importance in
understanding the Ashokan policy of Dhamma. It prescribed conquests by Dhamma
instead of war. This was a logical culmination of the thought process which
began with the first MRE. This is Ashoka’s testament against war. It
graphically depicted the tragedy of war.
This MRE was issued at the end of the Kalinga
War bearing testimony to how Ashoka underwent a change in heart from an being aggressive
and violent warrior to a preacher of peace and Dhamma.
It gave details of Magadha’s victory
over Kalinga and mentioned Ashoka’s Dhamma Vijay over Greek kings Antiochus of
Syria (Amtiyoko), Ptolemy of Egypt (Turamaye), Magas of Cyrene (Maka),
Antigonus of Macedon (Amtikini), Alexander of Epirus (Alikasudaro). It also
mentioned about Pandyas and Cholas in South India.
There is another MRE, the fourteenth. It
entailed the purpose of rock edicts – to spread Dhamma and policies of the
emperor.
PS: Ashoka put out his instructions
through a series of edicts inscribed on rocks installed across his empire.
These edicts are categorized by historians into five simpler groups:
-
Major Rock Edicts
-
Minor Rock Edicts
-
Separate Rock Edicts
-
Major Pillar Edicts
-
Minor Pillar Edicts
There are altogether 33 inscriptions
that have been found in the edicts recovered/survived so far.
ASHOKA’S DHAMMA AND HIS STATE
Ashoka’s
Dhamma was not simply a collection of lofty and feel-good phrases. He
consciously adopted Dhamma as a matter of state policy.
It was a
major departure from Arthashastra, the political treatise that formed the basis
of kingship during Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the dynasty. In the
Arthashastra, the king owed nothing to anyone. His only job was to rule the
state efficiently.
But
Ashoka’s Dhamma was a state policy. He declared that “all men are my children”
and “whatever exertion I make, I strive only to discharge the debt that I owe
to all living creatures”. It was totally a new and inspiring ideal of kingship.
Ashoka
wanted to conquer the world through love and faith and hence he sent many
missions to propagate Dhamma to even far flung places such as Egypt and Greece
besides relatively nearby Sri Lanka.
The
preparation of Dhamma included several measures for people’s welfare. Centres for
medical treatment of men and animals/beasts were founded inside and outside the
empire. Shady groves, wells fruit orchards and rest houses were laid out. This
kind of charity work was a radically different attitude from the king of
Arthashastra, who would not incur any expenses unless they brought more
revenues in return.
Ashoka
prohibited useless sacrifices and certain forms of gatherings which led to
waste, and indiscipline and superstition. He recruited Dhamma Mahamattas for
that purpose. They were to see to it that people of different sects were
treated equally and fairly. Moreover, they were also asked to look after the
welfare of prisoners. Many of the convicts who were kept in fetters after their
sentence had expired were to be released. Those sentenced to death were to be
given a grace for three days.
Ashoka
launched Dhamma Yatra, righteous tours. He and his high-ranking officials were
to tour the country in order to propagate Dhamma and establish direct contact
with his subjects.
Ashoka
renounced war and conquest by violence, and forbade killing of many animals.
Ashoka himself set an example of vegetarianism by almost stopping consumption
of meat in his royal household.
It was
because of such attitudes and policies that modern writers like Kem called him
“monk in a king’s garb”.
DHAMMA: INTERPRETATION
It has been
suggested that it was the original Buddhist thought that was being preached by
Ashoka as Dhamma, and later on, certain theological additions were made to
Buddhism. This kind of thinking is based on Buddhist chronicles. But
definitely, Ashoka did not favour Buddhism at the expense of other religious
beliefs.
Ashoka’s
creation of the institution of Dhamma Mahamatta indicates that Ashoka’s Dhamma
was not to favour any particular religious doctrine. Had that been the case,
there would not have been any need for such an official as Ashoka could have
utilised the organisation of Sangha to propagate Dhamma.
Further,
Ashoka wanted to promote tolerance and respect for all religious sects, and
duty of the Dhamma Mahamattas included working for Brahmanas and Shramanas.
Some
historians have suggested that Ashoka’s banning of sacrifices and the favour
that he showed to Buddhists led to Brahmanical reaction, which, in turn, led to
the decline of the Mauryan empire. Others believe that the stopping of wars and
emphasis on non-violence crippled the military might of the empire. This led to
the collapse of the empire, after the death of Ashoka.
However,
Romila Thapar has shown that Ashoka’s Dhamma, apart from being a document of
his humanness, was also an answer to the socio-political needs of the
contemporary situation.
That it was
not anti-Brahmanical is proven by the fact that respect for Brahmanas and
Shramanas was an integral part of Ashoka’s Dhamma. His emphasis on non-violence
did not blind him to the needs of the state. He warned the Atavikas (forest
tribes) of using the military force of the empire if they did not mend their
ways.
Ashoka’s
‘no to war’ policy came at a time when his empire had almost reached its
natural boundaries. In the deep south, he had friendly ties with the Cholas and
the Pandyas. Sri Lanka was an admiring ally. The policy of tolerance was a wise
course of action in an ethnically diverse, religiously varied and class-divided
society.
Ashoka’s
empire was a conglomerate of diverse groups. There were farmers, pastoral
nomads and hunter gatherers besides a burgeoning urban population. There were
Greeks, Kamobjas and Bhojas, and hundreds of groups following divergent
traditions.
In such a
society and political composition, the policy of tolerance was the need of the
hour. Ashoka tried to transcend the parochial cultural traditions by a broad
set of ethical principles. It is, therefore, obvious that he was not
establishing a new religion. He was simply trying to impress upon his society
to guide along ethical and moral principles that suited his politics quite
well.
