Buddhism: Institution of Sangha

The Sangha was the religious order of the Buddhists. It was a well-organised and powerful institution, which popularised Buddhism. Membership was open to all persons irrespective of caste. There was age criterion for eligibility. The inductee must have completed the age of 15 at the time of becoming a member of the Buddhist Sangha. Interestingly, many millennia later, legislators thought 15 is the right age for giving consent.

Besides, the Buddhist Sangha would not accord membership to criminals unless reformed, lepers (controlling infection through medication was not known or common back then), slaves (their status in those times in India remains a subject of discussion among historians), persons suffering from an infectious disease, and an indebted person (who needed to pay off her debt before earning eligibility).

The Buddha was not initially inclined to admit women into the Sangha fearing that a gender-mix might make it difficult for the Sangha to maintain the requisite discipline. His chief disciple, Ananda, and foster mother, Mahaprajapati Gautami, argued for their entry into the Sangha.

The Buddha agreed but it is said in some stories that he warned Ananda that the decision would weaken the institution of the Sangha and cut short its life by 500 years which would have served society for a thousand years otherwise. The Sangha weakened over the following centuries particularly in the post-Ashoka era but picked up strength during the Kanishka times.

The members of the Sangha were monks and followed a bureaucratic hierarchy to manage the affairs of the institution. The monks had to ceremonially shave their head and wear yellow or saffron robes upon admission into the Sangha. 

Monks were expected to go on a daily round in order to preach Buddhism and seek alms to feed themselves. During the four months of rainy season, they stayed at one place, usually fixed, and meditated on the questions of the contemporary society and find answers from the tenets of Buddhism. This was called the retreat or Vasa.

The Sangha also promoted education among people. Unlike Brahmanism, people of different orders of society got access to education under the Buddhist Sangha. Naturally, the non-Brahmins got educated and the formal education reached wider sections of society, a departure from the history of past few centuries.

The Sangha was governed on democratic principles. It was empowered to enforce discipline among its members. There was a code of conduct for the monks and nuns. But differences were cropping up in the Sangha even during the time of the Buddha.

Paul Carus, the celebrated author of the “Gospel of Buddha”, says the Buddha, on the advice of Magadh king Bimbisar who was planning retirement, marked two days in every fortnight for community preaching by a monk ordained in Buddhism. He fixed the eighth and 14-15th day of every fortnight – a model Bimbisar had suggested on the lines of the practice of some Brahmanical sect of Rajgriha, his capital.

People started flocking to such community preaching events. But soon they complained that the monks who were supposed to elucidate Buddhism. A dispute arose. To settle the dispute, the Buddha provided for Pratimoksha (pardon by the Sangha after self-confession of indiscipline or violation of the Sangha rules by a monk). This was to be done on the same two days of the fortnight. This meeting and the process was called Uposatha and was to be held in public.

The monk who violated the Buddhist code had to confess upon being asked by the senior monk at the Uposatha. Others were to remain silent. The question was to be asked three times. If a violator remained silent three times, she/he would be considered guilty of perjury, which was an obstacle in attaining nirvana – freedom from the cycle of suffering.

At another place, Carus has shown that the Buddha walked out of a Sangha event as the rival monks would not listen to reason. After some time when his disciples insisted upon finding a solution, the Buddha addressed both the sides, first separately and then jointly. He had asked his disciples not to discriminate against one group or the other for their preference for one or abhorrence of the other. 

In the joint session, the Buddha told them the story of a Koshal king Deerghiti, his rival Kashi king Brahmadutta, and Deerghiti’s son Deerghayu who ended the bitterness between the two royal families. Here, the Buddha enunciated that hate could only be conquered by hatelessness – something that became popular after the Bible’s narration of ‘an eye for an eye will make the whole world blind’.

Thus, the members of Sangha – both monks and nuns – had to follow their respective codes of conduct. They were bound to obey the code if they were to stay within the Sangha. The Sangha had the power to punish any of the erring members.

Buddhism: Teachings of the Buddha

 

The basic teachings of the Buddha are contained in:

-        Four Satyas (noble truths)

-        Eight paths (Ashtangika Marga)

The four noble truths are:

1.    The world is full of sufferings.

2.    All sufferings have a cause. Desire, ignorance and attachment are the causes of these sufferings.

3.    A suffering could be removed by destroying its cause.

4.    One must know the right path to end the sufferings. This path is eight-fold or the Ashtangika Marg.

The eight-fold path is enunciated as follows:

1.    Right View/Observation: Finding the right view through observation is the first of the paths. This is required to understand that the world is filled with sorrow emerging from desires. Ending the desire will lead to liberation of the self.

2.    Right Aim/Determination: It refers to having the determination for the right aim, which is to seek to avoid enjoyment of the senses and luxury. It aims to love the humanity and augment the happiness of others.

3.    Right Speech: It emphasises the endeavour to speak truth always.

4.    Right Action: This is interpreted as unselfish deeds or action.

5.    Right Livelihood: This path instructs a follower to live his or her life by honest means. This does not take an extreme position. For example, it allows profit-making by business people but without subjecting somebody to sufferings.

6.    Right Exercise: This means making the right efforts, interpreted as the proper way to control one’s senses so as to prevent bad or detrimental thoughts. It elucidates that one can destroy desires and attachments through right mental exercises.

7.    Right Memory/Mindfulness: It recognises that there are evil worldly affairs which trigger desires and attachments. This path calls for understanding the idea that the body is impermanent, and that meditation is the means for removal of the worldly evils.

8.    Right Meditation/Concentration: Observation of the right meditation will lead to inner peace. The right meditation will unravel the real truth.

Buddhism puts great emphasis on the law of karma (action). This means that the present is determined by one’s past actions. Everyone is the maker of one’s own destiny. The condition of a person in this life or the next life depends on one’s own actions. Humans are born again and again to reap the fruits of their karma. If an individual has no sins or desires, she or he is not born again.

The doctrine of karma is an essential part of the Buddhist tenet. The Buddha preached nirvana, described as the ultimate goal of a human life. One can attain nirvana by the process of elimination of desires. The Buddha laid emphasis the moral life of an individual to complete this process.

Buddhism is what could be termed a secular religion for the Buddha neither accepted nor rejected the existence of god. He did not consider the god question as significant enough to discuss. He was more concerned about the individual and one’s action than deliberating the question of god. The Buddha did not believe in the existence of soul either. It is unique in being a soul-less religion. This means there is no heaven in Buddhism.

The Buddha emphasised on the spirit of love, which he said could be harboured for all living beings by following the path of ahimsa, non-violence. The principle of ahimsa was underscored and emphasised in Buddhism but not as much as in Jainism. The Buddha prescribed that an individual should pursue the middle-path shunning the extremes of severe asceticism and luxurious life.

The teachings of the Buddha posed a serious challenge to the existing Brahmanical ideas in the following ways:

1.    The Buddha’s liberal and democratic approach towards life quickly attracted people from all sections of society. His disregard for the caste system and the supremacy of the Brahmins through the law of karma was welcomed by the people who were given lower social strata in the pecking order. People were admitted to the Buddhist order without the consideration of caste and, later, gender.

2.    Salvation of an individual, Buddhism declared, depended on one’s good deeds not the birth in a particular community. This meant that there was no need for a priest or spiritual middle-man to achieve nirvana.

3.    The Buddha also rejected the supreme authority of the Vedas by condemning the practice of animal sacrifice. The Buddha said neither a sacrifice to gods could wash away a sin nor could any prayer of any priest do any good to a sinner.

With these influences, Buddhism in a very short period emerged as an organised religion and the Buddha’s teachings were codified forming the Buddhist cannon, the collection of his teachings. The Buddhist cannon can be divided into three sections:

1.    Sutta Pitaka: It consists of five Nikayas (bodies) of religious discourses and sayings of the Buddha. The fifth of the Nikayas contains the Jatakakathas (the tales of the births).

2.    Vinaya Pitaka: It contains the rules for monastic discipline.

3.    Abhidhamma Pitaka: It contains the philosophical ideas of the teachings of the Buddha. It is written in the form of questions and answers.