History: North India before Gautam Buddha

Remains at Kapilvastu: Brick structure dating back to 6th century BC at Ganwaria near Piprahwa, Balrampur, UP. Twenty-five rooms were found during excavation leading to identification of the lost city of Kapilvastu, the capital of King Shuddhodhan, the father of Mahatma Buddha. (Photo: Twitter/Indianhistorypics)

This period is also known as the era of Mahajanapadas. There were 16. This is also the phase of socio-religious movements that saw emergence or consolidation of Jainism, Buddhism, Bhagavat belief system and Brahmanism.

Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya provides details of the 16 Mahajanapadas, also in Pali literature. Another text Janavasabhasutta talks about 12 Mahajanapadas while Chullaniddesha has a slightly different list of Mahajanapadas. It counts 17 by adding Kalinga to the list and replacing Gandhara by Yona. Mahavastu’s list is also a little modified with Shivi and Dasharna coming in place of Gandhara and Kamboja.

The commonly held 16 Mahajanapadas were:

1.    Kashi in Varanasi

2.    Koshal in Ayodhya-Shravasti region or the Awadh region

3.    Anga in East Bihar around Champa, Bhagalpur-Munger

4.    Magadha in South Bihar around Girivraj, Rajgriha

5.    Vajji in North Bihar, around Vaishali, a congregation of tribes

6.    Malla in Pava in East UP, around Gorakhpur-Deoria, a congregation of tribes

7.    Chedi, in Bundelkhand region

8.    Vatsa in Kaushambi, near Allahabad/Prayagraj in UP

9.    Kuru in Indraprastha, in Delhi-Haryana region

10. Panchal in Kampilya, around Ruhelkhand region

11. Matsya in Viratnagar in Rajasthan

12. Shurasena in Mathura, in West UP and around Delhi

13. Asmaka or Asika, in Potana or Paithan in the source region of the Narmada

14. Avanti in Ujjaini and Mahishmati in Malwa region, Central India

15. Gandhara in Takshashila, NW Pakistan

16. Kamboja in Rajpur, west of Gandhara

Jain text Bhagavatisuttra provides the list with slightly different names for some of the Mahajanapadas. They are:

1.    Kashi

2.    Koshal

3.    Anga

4.    Vajji

5.    Magadh

6.    Banga

7.    Malaya

8.    Malaw

9.    Achchha

10. Vachchha

11. Kochchha

12. Padhya or Pundra

13. Ladha or Radh

14. Moli

15. Awadha

16. Sambhuttara

The Bhagavatisuttra mentions new Mahajanapadas not mentioned in Buddhist Anguttara Nikaya, such as Banga and Radh. The geographical location of Sambhuttara Mahajanapada is not clearly known. It is speculated that it might have been somewhere in the northwest region of ancient India. Achchha and Vachchha Mahajanapadas might have been located in Gujarat. Pundra was possibly located near Banga.

It is clear that two literary sources give two different sets of 16 Mahajanapadas. Some of the names are different. Historians have given more credibility to the list mentioned by the Anguttara Nikaya. What is significant is that the lists emphasise that big state-like units emerged in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bengal and Pakistan. All these Mahajanapadas were located north of the Vindhyas.

The thing is that Anguttara Nikaya mentions the names of Mahajanapadas that existed before Buddha. During Buddha’s period, Kashi was annexed by Koshal and Anga by Magadh, and thus ceased to exist. Asmaka was also probably annexed by Avanti during this period. The listing of Vajji indicates that the statehood of Videha had collapsed by this time.

Based on Anguttara Nikaya, the Mahajanapadas could be grouped into two: monarchy and republic.

1.    Monarchy: Anga, Magadha, Kashi, Koshal, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchal, Shurasena, Asmaka, Matsya, Avanti, Gandhara and Kamboj

2.    Republic: Vajji and Malla

KASHI

Varanasi was the capital of Kashi Mahajanapada. Varanasi was situated in the doab of the Varuna in the north and Asi in the south. Brahmadatta was its most notable and powerful king. He vanquished Koshal. Later, the equation changed and Kansa annexed Kashi to Koshal.

KOSHAL

Koshal was in the Awadh region. Shravasti was the capital of Koshal. During the Ramayana period, Ayodhya was the capital of Koshal. During Buddha’s time, Koshal split into two with Saket becoming the capital of the northern part and Shravasti of the southern part. Koshal was marked by Panchal on the west, the Gandak river in the east, Nepal in the north and River Sai in the south.

ANGA

Anga was situated in Bihar’s Bhagalpur and Munger districts. Champa was the capital of Anga. Champa has a unique contribution to the human history of personal hygiene. Shampoo owes its origin to Champa. Back then it was some kind of mixed oil that was used to clean and lubricate hair. The mixture was called Champu. The word ‘champi’ for head massage has its origin in Champa. Champu travelled to the west but it lost its presence and knowledge in India. Many centuries later, champu made its way back as shampoo.

Champa’s old name was Malini during the age of Mahabharata and Puranas. Dighanikaya tells that Mahagovinda was the architect of Champa. Its ruler Brahmadatta defeated Bhattiya of Magadha.

Champa has been mentioned as one of the six metropolises of the time in Mahaprinrvanasutra. Other metropolitan towns were Rajagriha, Shravasti, Saket, Kaushambi and Varanasi.

MAGADHA

Magadha was in South Bihar spread over Patna and Gaya. River Champa separated Magadha from Anga. Rajgriha, also known as Girivraja, was the capital of Magadh. Rajgriha was guarded by stone fortresses. It was marked by River Son in the west, Ganga in the north, Vindhyas in the south and Champa in the east.

VAJJI

Vajji was a federation of eight states. It has been considered as a republic by historians – an early form of republic. Four of the eight constituents were Vajji, Lichchhavi of Vaishali, Videha in Mithila and Jnatrika of Kundagram. The four others were Ugra, Bhoga, Ikshvaku and Kaurava.

Vaishali has been identified with Basadh in Bihar’s Muzaffarpur district, Videha in Nepal’s Janakpur district and Kundagram in North Vaishali.

MALLA

Malla was situated in Uttar Pradesh’s Deoria district. It was a federation that included the Mallas of Pava in Padrauna district and Kushinara in Kushinagar district. According to Kusa Jatak, Okkaka was the chief of Malla federation.

CHEDI/CHETI

Chedi was situated in the region now known as Bundelkhand. Sotthivati was its capital. Sottivati has been recognised as Shuktimati of Mahabharata. Shishupala was its ruler back then. Chetiya Jataka names Upachara as one of its kings.

VATSA

Vats was located in Uttar Pradesh’s Prayagraj (Allahabad) and Banda districts. Its capital was Kaushambi on the bank of River Yamuna. Vishnu Purana traces the origin of Kaushambi to Mahabharata’s Hastinapur.

Vishnu Purana says that after Hastinapur was swept away by River Ganga, its king Nichakshu (man without eyes) founded the city of Kaushambi. During Buddha’s time, its ruler was Udayan of Paurava dynasty.

Puranas identify Udayan’s father as Prantapa, who had conquered Champa. Remains of Udayan’s royal palace and a vihara (monastery) built by Shresthi Ghoshita (also known as Ghoshitaram) have been found at Kaushambi.

KURU

Kuru was located in Uttar Pradesh’s Meerut, Delhi and Thanesar. Its capital was Indraprastha. Hastinapur was within the Kuru Mahajanapada. Koravya was its ruler during Buddha’s time. Later, a republic was established here.

PANCHAL

Panchal was situated in Uttar Pradesh’s Bareilly, Badaun and Farrukhabad districts. Northern Panchal had its capital in Ahichhatra in Ramnagar in Bareilly. Southern Panchal had its capital in Kampilya in Kampil in Farrukhabad.

Famous city of Kanyakubja was situated in Panchal. In 600 BC, Kuru and Panchal constituted a republic.

MASTYA

Matsya Mahajanapada was in Rajasthan’s Jaipur, Alwar and Bharatpur. Its capital was Viratnagar, a city founded by a king named Virat.

SHURASENA

In Brajmandal, its capital was Mathura. Ancient Greeks termed this state as Saurasanoi and its Methora. According to Mahabharata and Purana, Shurasena was ruled by Yadu dynasty and Krishna was its ruler.

In Buddha’s time, Avantiputra was its ruler. He was a disciple of Buddha. His mother was an Avanti princess, daughter of Pradyot. Avantiputra facilitated propagation of Buddhism in Mathura.

AVANTI

Avanti was located in western and central Malwa region. Puranas attribute the foundation of Avanti to one of the Yadus called Haihaya. Avanti was ruled in two parts with River Vetravati dividing the northern Avanti from southern part.

North Avanti had its capital in Ujjayini and South Avanti in Mahishmati. North Avanti had iron mines and Ujjayini had blacksmiths who manufactured very high quality iron-weapons.

ASMAKA

Asmaka was situated on the bank of River Godavari in Andhra Pradesh. Its capital was Polti, also known by the names of Paithan, Pratishthan and Potan. Asmaka was the only Mahajanapada of the 16 such states to have been situated in South India. Puranas say Asmaka was founded by Ikshvaku rulers who established a monarchy here. According to Chullakalinga Jataka, its ruler Arun had conquered Kalinga.

GANDHARA

It is commonly held that Afghanistan’s Kandahar has its origin in Gandhara Mahajanapada, whose principal territories were around Peshawar and Rawalpindi in Pakistan. Takshashila was its capital. According to Ramayana, Takshashila was founded by Taksha, the son of Bharat.

Its second capital was Pushkaravati. Around 600 BC, Pukkusati or Pushkarsarin was its ruler. He established diplomatic ties with Bimbisar. He defeated Prodyot of Avanti.

KAMBOJ

Its principal region was South-West Kashmir including the territories of Poonch and Kapisha that corresponds to what is known as Kafiristan extending from Hindukush to Kabul. Its capital was Rajpur or Hataka. Later, a federal state was established here. Kautilya has described agriculture, animal husbandry, commerce and weapon-making as economic activities of Kambojians. Kamboj was noted for breeding high-quality horses.

EMERGENCE OF FOUR POWERFUL MONARCHIES

The 16 Mahajanapadas in the course of time gave rise to four powerful monarchical states. All the Mahajanapadas assimilated into one or the other monarchies. Mutual rivalry was the force behind the annihilation of these Mahajanapadas – a natural evolution of political power and ambition. The four resultant monarchies were:

1.    Koshal

2.    Vatsa

3.    Avanti

4.    Magadh

KOSHAL

Koshal continued to have its capital in Shravastri, identified with Setamohata village near Gonda in Uttar Pradesh. Before the advent of Buddha, Kansa was the king of Koshal and had annexed Kashi to expand his state. Mahakoshal, the son and successor of Kansa, expanded Koshal’s territories and economic might. Gain of Kashi made Koshal a very influential state. Kashi was an important centre of trade and hosiery. Its trade contact with Takshashila, Sauvira and other distant places were strong. The growing economic power of Koshal was the main reason behind its rivalry with Magadh.

During the time of Buddha, Prasenjit was the king of Koshal. He had established friendly relationship with Magadh by marrying his sister Mahakoshala, also known as Koshaladevi to Bimbisar. He had given Kashi or at least a portion of it to Bimbisar in marriage as gift.

However, during the reign of Bimbisar’s son Ajatshatru, relationship between Magadh and Koshal embittered. Samyukta Nikaya provides details of revival of rivalry. The reason for bitterness was Kashi, which Prasenjit had taken back after the death of Bimbisar. Prasenjit made another move to make peace with Ajatshatru by marrying his daughter Wajira to him. He also returned Kashi to Magadh.

During the reign of Prasenjit, Koshal was at the pinnacle of its glory. It ruled over Shakyas of Kapilvastu, Kalam of Ksaputta, Malla of Pava and Kushinara, Koliya of Ramagama, Moriya of Pippalivana et al. Prasenjit was a follower of Buddha and preaching.

Prasenjit was succeeded by Vidudabh, who had usurped the throne with the help of Dighacharan, a minister of Prasenjit. It was said that Vidudabh was the son of a Shakya maid-servant (daasi). This became a cause of strife between the Shakyas and Vidudabh. The maid-servant was known by the name of Vasabhakhattiya and was married to Prasenjit.

Nothing is known about the successors of Vidudabh. Koshal was perhaps soon annexed by Magadh.

River Rapti was an important river in Koshal. Its name back then was Achiravati.

VATSA

Udayan was the most famous king of Vatsa. Once on hunting, Udayan was captured by Pradyot, the king of Avanti. During his captivity, Udayan fell in love with Pradyot’s daughter Vasavdatta and fled Avanti with her. Later, they married and consequently, friendship between Vats and Avanti was established.

According to Sumsumargiri (?, Bhagga republic accepted the suzerainty of Udayan and Udayan’s son Bodhikumar resided there.

According to Bhash, Udayan had married Pdmavati, the daughter of Darshaka, the king of Magadha – thus befriending Magadha as well.

Udayan turned to Buddhism and was initiated into it by famous monk Pindol. This time, Kaushambi had several Buddhist mathas, the most famous of them was Ghoshitaram’s.

AVANTI

Pradyot was its famous king. He owed his crowning to his father Ripunjaya’s minister Pulik, who was the last Amatya or a high-ranking minister of Magadha’s Brihadatta or Brihadrath dynasty. Pulik dethroned Ripunjaya and installed Pradyot as the king. Buddhist text Mahavagg calls him Chand-Pradyot signaling a strong and stubborn military policy adopted by him.

Avanti was a powerful and prosperous state due to its richness in resources that included iron mines and blacksmith skills of its workers. Pradyot was once treated by Magadh king Bimbisar’s physician Jeevak for jaundice.

Pradyot was initiated into Buddhism by Mahakachchayan, a famous monk of the time. Pradyot was succeeded by Palak, Vishakhayupa, Ajak, Nandivardhan in sequence. They were eliminated by Shishunag of Magadh.

MAGADH

The real founder of Magadh monarchy was Bimbisar. Magadh emerged as the most powerful empire of ancient India. Patliputra became its imperial capital. Bimbisar’s son Ajatshatru founded Patliputra, which was built under the supervision of his ministers Sumidha and Vassakara.

REPUBLICS IN INDIA DURING BUDDHA’S TIME

Initially, it was believed that only monarchies existed in India. Ridge Davids was the first scholar to rediscover the existence of republics in ancient India. Both Buddhist and Jain texts mention about the existence of republics in various parts of india. Panini also wrote about republics. Kautilya classifies republics into two groups:

1.    Vartashastropajivi: Those living or thriving on agriculture, animal husbandry, commerce and weapon-making as economic activities. Kamboja and Saurashtra were listed as examples.

2.    Rajashabdopjivi:  Those republics which used the tile of Raja for their chiefs. Lichchhavi, Vrijji, Malla, Madra, Kukar, Panchal etc were listed as examples.

The coins of Malwa, Yaudheya and Arjunayan talk about republics and not kings.

The republics of the past were not the same in character that we see today. They could be called aristocracy. The administration or statehood sought its authority not from the masses directly but from an elite class of electors.

SHAKYAS OF KAPILVASTU

Kapilvastu identified with Tilaurakot in Nipal was its capital. Other important towns of the republic were Chatuma, Samagama, Khomadussa, Shilavati, Nagarak, Devadaha, Sakkar etc.

Shakyas did not marry outside their own blood. Buddha was from the Shakya clan. His mother was from Devadaha. This republic was destroyed by Vidudabh, the son of Koshal king Prasenjit by his marriage with a Shakya maid-servant.

Kapilvastu was bordered in the north by the Himalayas, in the west and south by River Rapti, and in the east by River Rohini.

BHAGGA OF SUMSUMAR OR SUSHMAGIRI

Sumsumar or Sushmagiri mountain is now identified with Chunar in Mirzapur district in Uttar Pradesh. Bhaggas accepted the suzerainty of the Vatsas. Bodhikumar resided here.

BULI OF ALAKAPPA

Alakappa is identified with Shahabad-Ara-Muzaffarpur axis of Bihar. Probably, Vethadwipa (Betia) was its capital. Bulis or Buliyas were Buddhists. Accordring to Mahaparinirvanasutta, they acquired ashes of Buddha after his death and built a stupa there.

KALAM OF KESAPUTTA

Kesaputta was situated west of Koshal. Alar Kalam, one of Buddha’s early teachers who taught him yoga and meditation, was from this state. He lived near Uruvela. Kalama accepted suzerainty of Koshal.

KOLIYA OF RAMAGRAMA

Ramagrama was situated east of Shakyas. In the south, it was bordered by River Sarayu. River Rohini separated Koliyas from Shakyas. Its capital Ramagrama has been identified with modern Ramgarh in Gorakhpur district in Uttar Pradesh. Koliyas were famous for their police force.

MALLA OF KUSHINARA

Kushinara is identified with present-day Kasiya. According to Balmiki Ramayana, Mallas of Kushinara were descendents of Chandraketu, the son of Lakshamana.

MALLA OF PAVA

Pava is identified with Padrauna in eastern Uttar Pradesh. They were militant in nature. They fought against Ajatshatru of Patliputra by forming a federation with Lichchhavis of Vaishali. They were defeated by Ajatshatru.

MORIYA OF PIPPALIVANA

They were a branch of Shakyas. According to Mahavamsatika, Moriyas fled towards the Himalayas to escape the wrath of Vidudabh, the Koshal king and the son of Prasenjit by a Shakya maid-servant.

The fleeing Moriyas developed Pippalivana. Here, they organised and developed peacock rearing. Peacock, called Mayur in Sanskrit, possibly led to them being called Moriyas, and probably developed into mighty Mauryas of Magadh empire.

Pippalivana is identified with a village, Rajadhani near Kusumhi in Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh.

LICHCHHAVIS OF VAISHALI

Its capital was at Basad. Lichchhavis built the famous Kuttagarshala in Mahavana, where Buddha delivered his sermon. Lichchhavis were powerful and prosperous. In Buddha’s time, Chetak was its ruler. His daughter Chellana was married to Bimbisara. His sister Trishala was the mother of Mahavir Jain.

VIDEHA OF MITHILA

Videha spread from Nepal to Bhagalpur in Bihar with Darbhanga falling in centre. Its capital was Janakpur, in Nepal. Mithila was a famous trading centre where traders from Shravasti would come to trade with the locals.

LAW AND ADMINISTRAION IN REPUBLICS

Not much information is available about enactment of law and working of administration in these republic states.

Head or president of the executive of the republic was an elected person or official, called Raja. The position was held by men. His prime concern was to maintain peace and internal coordination.

Other top officials were Uparaja, Senapati, and Bhandagarik or treasurer. But the real power was vested in a central committee of large membership. These members were also sometimes called Rajas. It appears that Raja could have been the title or address for the chief of units of administration.

According to Ekapanna Jataka, there were 7,707 Rajas in the central committee of Lichchhavis. In Shakyas’, the number of Rajas stood at 500.

Ekapanna Jataka gives maximum information about Lichchhavis.

Whenever a dispute or crisis arose, the rajas of the central committee met and decided the course of action by voting. For example, when a dispute arose between the Shakyas and Koshal over the Rohini river water, the Shakya’s central committee voted in favour of war. But later when Koshal king Vidudabh laid a seize of Shakya capital, the central committee decided to surrender to Vidudabh’s forces to end the war accepting his lordship.

The central committee decided the appointment of Senapati in the Lichchhavi republic. In one instance, after the death of military commander called Khanda, the central committee of the Lichchhavis elected Singh to be the new military commander.

Mallas of Kushinara held a discussion in their central committee regarding Buddha’s cremation and articles belonging to him. Buddha breathed his last in the Kushinara.

The general working of these republics was probably similar to modern democratic parliaments. The working of the committee was looked after by an official called Asannapannapaka. Literature confirms that the concept of quorum was there. Secret ballot system for voting was prevalent. Official conducting voting was called Shlaka-grahaka. A vote was called Chhand.

REMARKS

It is often said that the sword that Bimbisar drew from its case was put back in the case by Ashoka in the eleventh year of his rule. By then, the Magadh empire had reached its territorial climax.

Progression of society in history: Rig Vedic age was of the age of tribes. There were tribal communities. Later Vedic age was of Janpadas formed by consolidation of tribal communities. It was followed by the age of Mahajanapadas that was characterized by bigger and massive Janapadas which were controlled by one or more tribal communities. This was the age of the beginning of state in India.

Mahajanapada was the highest unit of state. Information about this age is available in literature. But literature places these Mahajanapadas north of the Vindhyas. Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya gives the list of 16 Mahajanapadas, all north of the Vindhyas.

Buddhist text, Diggha Nikaya’s Janavasabh Sukta gives a list of 10 Mahajanapadas of the time. It mentions them in the pair of five. Besides Mahajanapadas, it also talks about Janpadas, smaller units.

Other sources say that there were other Janas and “half-civilised” tribes. Since the Mahajanapadas were in lead role, the period is called the Age of Mahajanapadas. This was also the age of advent of Magadh imperialism. The Mahajanapadas and Janapadas of the period did not have same administrative system. Same administrative systems were not there even during the Later Vedic Age. Like that, all three forms of administration continued to be in vogue – monarchy, republican and federal. Of these, republican and federal administrative systems were closer in nature.

These three forms of governance found practical expression in two forms – monarchical and republican-federal mixed. Republican-federal system were primarily found in Bihar and the terai of Nepal, and also in the northwestern region of India.

Government in Surasena and Chedi were essentially federal in nature. Vajji and Mala had republican form of government. Bihar and Nepal’s terai were important regions for republican governments. Such states were:

•         Shakya of Kapilvastu
•         Buliya of Alakappa
•         Koliya of Ramagrama
•         Malla of Pava
•         Malla of Kushinara
•         Moriya of Pippalivana
•         Lichchhavi of Vaishali
•         Nay/Nath of Vaishali
•         Kalam of Kelaputra (New Vaishali)
•         Magga of Sushmagiri

Videh of Mithila is also spoken in the same vein of republican government. All these republics were in North Bihar and the terai of Nepal. They were numerous and some of them had formed a federation. One such federation was Vajji Federation, which comprised of most republics of the region. The federation was formed for security or protection and facilitation of civic works.

They felt threatened from monarchical governments or states. There were several Janapadas that followed monarchical form of government but four were more influential. They were:

-        Magadh Mahajanapada of Girivraj or Rajgriha

-        Vatsa Mahajanapada of Kaushambi

-        Koshal Mahajanapada of Ayodhya-Shravasti

-        Avanti Mahajanapada of Ujjaini or Mahishmati

These four Mahajanapadas were special in military power. They were efficient in the use of iron. They believed in the principle of centralization of power. They followed the principle of expansion in foreign policy.

During this period, these four Mahajanapadas expanded their territories at the cost of the Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and Janas irrespective of their form of government, monarchical or republican.

Of these, the position of Magadh Mahajanapada was different from other three due to specific reasons:

• Geographic
• Economic
• Military
• Technological
• Degree of propensity of centralization of power

Magadha Mahajanapada saw continued expansion of its territories due to these factors. Its size continued to increase. The expansion process that began in sixth century BC continued till fourth century BC almost without a break. The expansion happened at the cost of others.

Propensity of expansion remained a constant with the Magadh Mahajanapada even though the ruling dynasty kept changing. Magadh was ruled by Haryanka dynasty, followed by Shishunag and Nanda ruling families. But change of dynasties did not bring a change in expansion policy.

The Maurya dynasty took the Magadh dynasty’s expansion to its climax. Due to the dominance of Magadh Mahajanapada during this period, it is also known as the age of the rise and growth of Magadh imperialism.